lecture iii-第1部分

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Modern　Custom　and　Ancient　Laws　of　Russia

by　Maxime　Kovalevsky

1891




Lecture　III

The　Past　and　Present　of　the　Russian　Village　Community


　　　　Few　questions　of　history　are　debated　in　our　days　as　that　of
the　origin　of　village　communities。　French；　English；　and　German
scholars；　to　say　nothing　of　Russians　and　Americans；　have
published　whole　volumes　in　order　to　prove　either　the　existence　or
non…existence　of　village　communities　in　that　period　of　evolution
which　is　generally　known　as　patriarchal。
　　　　The　acute　German　observer；　Baron　Haxthausen；　who　was　the
first　to　describe　to　European　readers　the　social　and　economic
character　of　the　Russian　mir；　was　probably　quite　unconscious　of
the　literary　movement　to　which　he　was　to　give　rise　by　his　two　or
three　sentences　about　the　antiquity　of　the　Russian　agrarian
community；　and　its　likeness　to　the　social　and　economic
institutions　of　the　Southern　and　Western　Slavs。　A　few　years　after
the　publication　of　Baron　Haxthausen's　work；　a　Moscovite
professor；　Mr　Chicherin；　in　two　articles　which　at　once　produced　a
great　sensation；　strongly　protested　against　the　opinion　that
Russian　village　communities　were　the　direct　descendants　of　those
undivided　households　which　so　commonly　form　part　of　the
historical　past　of　most　Aryan　nations。　The　Slavophils　and　their
leader　Chomiakov　maintained　that　they　were　the　spontaneous　growth
of　Russia。　Chicherin　believed　they　had　a　twofold　origin　　that
they　were　partly　the　creation　of　a　Government　anxious　to　secure
an　easy　method　of　collecting　one　of　the　taxes　which　was　very　like
the　old　French　capitation　tax；　and　partly　due　to　the　landed
aristocracy；　which　could　find　no　better　means　than　an　equal　and
periodical　redistribution　of　the　land；　for　attaching　to　the　soil
those　classes　of　the　people　who　were　reduced　to　the　condition　of
serfdom。　This　extraordinary　assertion　immediately　met　with　a
systematic　denial　on　the　part　of　Mr　Beliaiev；　the　well…known
Professor　of　Legal　History；　who　was　one　of　the　colleagues　of　Mr
Chicherin；　and　whose　extensive　researches　in　the　legal　history　of
Russia　gave　his　opinion　great　weight。　This　did　not；　however；
prevent　M。　Fustel　de　Coulanges　from　reproducing　the　theory　just
as　if　it　had　not　already　been　refuted。　But　the　inventors　of
theories；　of　whom　Fustel　de　Coulanges　was　certainly　one　of　the
greatest；　too　often　follow　the　method　described　in　the　well…known
French　saying：　〃Je　prends　mon　bien　ou　je　le　trouve。〃　Seeing　that
a　denial　of　the　antiquity　of　the　Russian　village　communities
supported　his　theory　of　the　general　prevalence　of　private
property　even　in　the　earliest　times；　he　thought　himself　at
liberty　to　disregard　all　later　investigations；　and　to　endorse　an
opinion　which　had　already　been　refuted。
　　　　The　study　of　the　origin　and　growth　of　Russian　village
communities　has　never　been　discontinued　in　my　country　wince　the
time　when　the　work　of　Haxthausen　first　drew　the　attention　of　our
economists　and　historians　to　this　peculiar　institution。　A　crowd
of　young　students　have　rendered　familiar；　even　to　the　general
public；　the　notion　that　they　were　the　spontaneous　result　of　our
social　development；　that　the　Government；　by　interfering　in　their
internal　constitution；　has　only　succeeded　in　obscuring　their
national　character；　that　mutual　responsibility　in　matters　of
taxation　was　foreign　to　their　original　organisation；　and　that
there　is　ample　foundation　for　the　statement　that　their　members；
from　being；　as　they　were　at　first；　free　possessors　of　the　soil；
became　the　serfs　of　the　Czar；　the　nobles；　or　the　clergy。
　　　　The　extraordinary　increase　of　historical　research　in　Russia；
and　especially　of　investigations　into　the　social　and　economical
development　of　the　country；　which　took　place　during　the　reign　of
Alexander　II；　certainly　contributed　largely　to　induce　German
scholars；　with　the　illustrious　Maurer　at　their　head；　to　review
the　current　opinions　concerning　the　social　condition　of　the
Germans　in　the　Middle　Ages。　It　led　Maurer　to　elaborate　his
magnificent　theory　of　the　Mark；　Manor；　and　Village　Constitution
（Mark；　Hof　und　Dorf　Verfassung）。
　　　　Sir　Henry　Maine　made　the　system　of　village　communities
familiar　to　English　students；　and　had；　moreover；　the　great　merit
of　showing　that；　far　from　being　a　peculiar　feature　of　the　social
organisation　of　the　Germans　and　Slavs；　they　were　to　be　found
amongst　the　majority　of　Aryan　nations；　in　the　plains　of　the
Punjab　and　the　interior　of　the　North…West　Provinces　of　india；　and
among　the　green　pastures　of　Erin。　The　almost　universal　admiration
which　his　essay　on　Village　Communities　in　the　East　and　West　has
elicited；　rests　on　no　other　ground　than　that　of　its　having　first
brought　to　light　the　truth　which　is　now　all　but　established；　that
village　communities　represent　a　distinct　period　in　the　social
development　of　mankind；　a　period　which　ought　to　be　placed　between
the　patriarchal　and　the　feudal　periods；　and　that；　therefore；　all
endeavours　to　explain　their　existence　among　this　or　that　people
by　the　peculiarities　of　national　character　ought　to　be　henceforth
declared　useless　and　worthless。
　　　　This　idea；　confirmed；　as　it　is；　by　a　general　survey　of　the
survivals　left　by　the　system　of　village　communities　among　the
Celtic；　German；　and　Latin　nations；　a　survey　with　which　M。　de
Laveleye　has　inseparably　connected　his　name；　has　literally
revolutionised　the　historical　researches　of　more　than　one　country
of　Europe；　and　especially　those　of　my　own。　The　impression
produced　by　the　two　writers　just　mentioned　is　still　so　strong
that　Russian　scholars；　instead　of　subscribing　to　the　recent
ingenious　hypothesis　of　Mr　Seebohm　as　to　the　servile　origin　of
village　communities　in　England；　have　themselves　set　to　work　to
examine　the　rich　materials　which　the　Bodleian　Library　and　the
Record　Office　present　as　to　the　history　of　land…ownership　in
England。　In　saying　this　I　have　particularly　in　view　the　deep　and
accurate　studies　of　my　former　colleague　Professor　Vinogradov　on
the　agrarian　constitution　of　medieval　England；　of　which　a　few
years　ago　I　gave　a　short　account　in　the　Law　Quarterly　Review。
Others　have　made　similar　inquiries　into　the　economic　history　of
medieval　Germany；　and　their　studies　have　induced　some　French
authors；　and　among　them　M。　Dareste；　warmly　to　oppose　the　original
but　one…sided　theory　of　Fustel　de　Coulanges。
　　　　Before　passing　to　the　direct　study　of　the　development　of　the
Russian　village　community；　I　must　recognise　the　fact　that　the
long　and　sometimes　violent　struggle　of　the　early　Slavophils　on
behalf　of　the　spontaneous　origin　of　the　mir；　has　been　productive
of　the　best　results　to　the　study　of　agrarian　communism　in　Russia。
　　　　A　comparison　between　the　modern　constitution　of　the　mir　and
that　described　in　old　charters　proves　the　widely　different
character　of　the　two；　while　the　differences　between　them　support
the　theory　of　a　natural　evolution　of　the　community；　an　evolution
not　yet　completed　in　more　than　one　part　of　the　Empire。　The
difference　which　we　trace　between　the　past　and　the　present　of　the
Russian　commune　are　the　same　which　we　see　existing　between　the
various　modern　forms　of　it　in　our　own　day。　The　study；　therefore；
of　these　forms　and　of　their　natural　transformation　may　be　of
great　help　towards　understanding　the　true　origin　and　growth　of
the　system。　The　opportunity　　I　may　even　say　the　necessity　　of
such　a　study　is　the　more　apparent　on　account　of　the　lack　of
mediaeval　documents　concerning　the　early　constitution　of　the　mir。
Our　sources　of　information　are　limited　indeed；　for　several
centuries；　down　to　the　end　of　the　fifteenth；　they　are　almost
entirely　wanting；　and　they　only　begin　to　be　at　all　abundant
during　the　last　three　hundred　years。　It　is　only；　therefore；　by　a
survey　of　the　modern　evolution　of　village　ownership　in　some
remote　parts　of　Russia　that　we　can　get　an　idea　of　the　various
transformations　which　the　commune　has　had　to　undergo　before　it
reached　its　present　condition。
　　　　The　vastness　of　the　area　and　the　fact　that　certain　parts　of
Russia　remained　for　centuries　unpeopled；　partly　on　account　of
their　physical　condition；　partly　owing　to　their　insecurity；　due；
as　it　was；　to　the　periodical　invasions　of　the　Tartars；　explain；
to　a　great　extent；　why　the　character　of　the　commune　varies　so
much　throughout　the　land。　Its　growth　has　been　stopped　in　one
place　at　an　early　stage；　in　another　place　at　a　later　stage；　of
its　development。　We　can　trace　these　stages　in　some　cases　by
charters　and　by　legal　and　judicial　documents；　in　others　by　the
transformation　of　the　commune　into　higher　and　more　elaborate
forms。　It　is　only　by　the　study　of　these　documents　and　these　forms
that　the　Russian　historian　can　hope　to　be　able　to　describe　the
gradual　development　of　the　agrarian　communism　of　his　country。　We
will　now　consider　the　chief　results　which　the　application　of　this
method　has　produced。
　　　　In　the　last　lecture　it　was　shown　that　the　earliest　mode　of
land　tenure　in　Russia　was　the　holding　it　in　an　undivided　state　by
the　members　of　a　house　community。　This　kind　of　a　family　communism
is　mentioned　in　the　Pravda　of　Jaroslav　at　the　end　of　the　eleventh
century；　and　continued　to　exist　in　the　north　and　south　of　the
country　down　to　the　seventeenth　and　eighteenth　centuries。　The
chief　characteristic　of　this　holding　consisted　in　the　fact　that；
though　the　land　remained　undivided　and　lay　open　as　it　had　done
for　centuries　before；　every　member　of　the　household；
nevertheless；　was　the　possessor　of　a　share　in　the　various　fields
belonging　to　the　family。　These　shares　were　not　equal；　but　varied
according　to　rights　of　inheritance　appertaining　to　each　of　the
holders。　Should　the　brothers　and　nephews　decide　on　living
separately；　they　would　abandon　the　old　system　of　using　in　common
the　produce　of　the　early　harvest；　and　divide　the　area　of　the
arable　land　in　unequa1　shares；　proportioned　to　the　rights　of
inheritance　possessed　by　each　member　of　the　household。　The　extent
of　the　shares　was　not　fixed。　The　soil　varied　in　fertility；　and
all　the　shareholders　alike　appreciated　the　advantages　of
vicinity；　each　partner；　therefore；　received　the　right　to　enjoy　a
certain　portion　in　each　of　the　fields　possessed　by　the　village。
These　portions　were　not　strictly　defined；　but；