the past condition of organic nature-第3部分

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the　under；　and　the　under　any　number　of　years　younger　than　the　upper。

Now　you　must　not　suppose　that　I　put　this　before　you　for　the　purpose　of
raising　a　paradoxical　difficulty；　the　fact　is；　that　the　great　mass　of
deposits　have　taken　place　in　sea…bottoms　which　are　gradually　sinking；
and　have　been　formed　under　the　very　conditions　I　am　here　supposing。

Do　not　run　away　with　the　notion　that　this　subverts　the　principle　I　laid
down　at　first。　　The　error　lies　in　extending　a　principle　which　is
perfectly　applicable　to　deposits　in　the　same　vertical　line　to　deposits
which　are　not　in　that　relation　to　one　another。

It　is　in　consequence　of　circumstances　of　this　kind；　and　of　others　that　I
might　mention　to　you；　that　our　conclusions　on　and　interpretations　of
the　record　are　really　and　strictly　only　valid　so　long　as　we　confine
ourselves　to　one　vertical　section。　　I　do　not　mean　to　tell　you　that　there
are　no　qualifying　circumstances；　so　that；　even　in　very　considerable
areas；　we　may　safely　speak　of　conformably　superimposed　beds　being　older
or　younger　than　others　at　many　different　points。　But　we　can　never　be
quite　sure　in　coming　to　that　conclusion；　and　especially　we　cannot　he
sure　if　there　is　any　break　in　their　continuity；　or　any　very　great
distance　between　the　points　to　be　compared。

Well　now；　so　much　for　the　record　itself；so　much　for　its
imperfections；so　much　for　the　conditions　to　be　observed　in
interpreting　it；　and　its　chronological　indications；　the　moment　we　pass
beyond　the　limits　of　a　vertical　linear　section。

Now　let　us　pass　from　the　record　to　that　which　it　contains；from　the
book　itself　to　the　writing　and　the　figures　on　its　pages。　　This　writing
and　these　figures　consist　of　remains　of　animals　and　plants　which；　in
the　great　majority　of　cases；　have　lived　and　died　in　the　very　spot　in
which　we　now　find　them；　or　at　least　in　the　immediate　vicinity。　　You
must　all　of　you　be　awareand　I　referred　to　the　fact　in　my　last
lecturethat　there　are　vast　numbers　of　creatures　living　at　the　bottom
of　the　sea。　　These　creatures；　like　all　others；　sooner　or　later　die；　and
their　shells　and　hard　parts　lie　at　the　bottom；　and　then　the　fine　mud
which　is　being　constantly　brought　down　by　rivers　and　the　action　of　the
wear　and　tear　of　the　sea；　covers　them　over　and　protects　them　from　any
further　change　or　alteration；　and；　of　course；　as　in　process　of　time　the
mud　becomes　hardened　and　solidified；　the　shells　of　these　animals　are
preserved　and　firmly　imbedded　in　the　limestone　or　sandstone　which　is
being　thus　formed。　　You　may　see　in　the　galleries　of　the　Museum　up
stairs　specimens　of　limestones　in　which　such　fossil　remains　of　existing
animals　are　imbedded。　　There　are　some　specimens　in　which　turtles'　eggs
have　been　imbedded　in　calcareous　sand；　and　before　the　sun　had　hatched
the　young　turtles；　they　became　covered　over　with　calcareous　mud；　and
thus　have　been　preserved　and　fossilized。

Not　only　does　this　process　of　imbedding　and　fossilization　occur　with
marine　and　other　aquatic　animals　and　plants；　but　it　affects　those　land
animals　and　plants　which　are　drifted　away　to　sea；　or　become　buried　in
bogs　or　morasses；　and　the　animals　which　have　been　trodden　down　by　their
fellows　and　crushed　in　the　mud　at　the　river's　bank；　as　the　herd　have
come　to　drink。　　In　any　of　these　cases；　the　organisms　may　be　crushed　or
be　mutilated；　before　or　after　putrefaction；　in　such　a　manner　that
perhaps　only　a　part　will　be　left　in　the　form　in　which　it　reaches　us。　　It
is；　indeed；　a　most　remarkable　fact；　that　it　is　quite　an　exceptional
case　to　find　a　skeleton　of　any　one　of　all　the　thousands　of　wild　land
animals　that　we　know　are　constantly　being　killed；　or　dying　in　the
course　of　nature：　they　are　preyed　on　and　devoured　by　other　animals　or
die　in　places　where　their　bodies　are　not　afterwards　protected　by　mud。
There　are　other　animals　existing　in　the　sea；　the　shells　of　which　form
exceedingly　large　deposits。　　You　are　probably　aware　that　before　the
attempt　was　made　to　lay　the　Atlantic　telegraphic　cable；　the　Government
employed　vessels　in　making　a　series　of　very　careful　observations　and
soundings　of　the　bottom　of　the　Atlantic；　and　although；　as　we　must　all
regret；　up　to　the　present　time　that　project　has　not　succeeded；　we　have
the　satisfaction　of　knowing　that　it　yielded　some　most　remarkable　results
to　science。　　The　Atlantic　Ocean　had　to　be　sounded　right　across；　to
depths　of　several　miles　in　some　places；　and　the　nature　of　its　bottom
was　carefully　ascertained。　　Well；　now；　a　space　of　about　1；000　miles
wide　from　east　to　west；　and　I　do　not　exactly　know　how　many　from　north　to
south；　but　at　any　rate　600　or　700　miles；　was　carefully　examined；　and　it
was　found　that　over　the　whole　of　that　immense　area　an　excessively　fine
chalky　mud　is　being　deposited；　and　this　deposit　is　entirely　made　up　of
animals　whose　hard　parts　are　deposited　in　this　part　of　the　ocean；　and
are　doubtless　gradually　acquiring　solidity　and　becoming　metamorphosed
into　a　chalky　limestone。　　Thus；　you　see；　it　is　quite　possible　in　this
way　to　preserve　unmistakable　records　of　animal　and　vegetable　life。
Whenever　the　sea…bottom；　by　some　of　those　undulations　of　the　earth's
crust　that　I　have　referred　to；　becomes　upheaved；　and　sections　or
borings　are　made；　or　pits　are　dug；　then　we　become　able　to　examine　the
contents　and　constituents　of　these　ancient　sea…bottoms；　and　find　out
what　manner　of　animals　lived　at　that　period。

Now　it　is　a　very　important　consideration　in　its　bearing　on　the
completeness　of　the　record；　to　inquire　how　far　the　remains　contained　in
these　fossiliferous　limestones　are　able　to　convey　anything　like　an
accurate　or　complete　account　of　the　animals　which　were　in　existence　at
the　time　of　its　formation。　　Upon　that　point　we　can　form　a　very　clear
judgment；　and　one　in　which　there　is　no　possible　room　for　any　mistake。
There　are　of　course　a　great　number　of　animalssuch　as　jelly…fishes；
and　other　animalswithout　any　hard　parts；　of　which　we　cannot
reasonably　expect　to　find　any　traces　whatever：　there　is　nothing　of　them
to　preserve。　　Within　a　very　short　time；　you　will　have　noticed；　after
they　are　removed　from　the　water；　they　dry　up　to　a　mere　nothing；
certainly　they　are　not　of　a　nature　to　leave　any　very　visible　traces　of
their　existence　on　such　bodies　as　chalk　or　mud。　　Then　again；　look　at
land　animals；　it　is；　as　I　have　said；　a　very　uncommon　thing　to　find　a
land　animal　entire　after　death。　　Insects　and　other　carnivorous　animals
very　speedily　pull　them　to　pieces；　putrefaction　takes　place；　and　so；　out
of　the　hundreds　of　thousands　that　are　known　to　die　every　year；　it　is
the　rarest　thing　in　the　world　to　see　one　imbedded　in　such　a　way　that
its　remains　would　be　preserved　for　a　lengthened　period。　　Not　only　is
this　the　case；　but　even　when　animal　remains　have　been　safely　imbedded；
certain　natural　agents　may　wholly　destroy　and　remove　them。

Almost　all　the　hard　parts　of　animalsthe　bones　and　so　onare　composed
chiefly　of　phosphate　of　lime　and　carbonate　of　lime。　　Some　years　ago；　I
had　to　make　an　inquiry　into　the　nature　of　some　very　curious　fossils
sent　to　me　from　the　North　of　Scotland。　　Fossils　are　usually　hard　bony
structures　that　have　become　imbedded　in　the　way　I　have　described；　and
have　gradually　acquired　the　nature　and　solidity　of　the　body　with　which
they　are　associated；　but　in　this　case　I　had　a　series　of　'holes'　in　some
pieces　of　rock；　and　nothing　else。　　Those　holes；　however；　had　a　certain
definite　shape　about　them；　and　when　I　got　a　skilful　workman　to　make
castings　of　the　interior　of　these　holes；　I　found　that　they　were　the
impressions　of　the　joints　of　a　backbone　and　of　the　armour　of　a　great
reptile；　twelve　or　more　feet　long。　　This　great　beast　had　died　and　got
buried　in　the　sand；　the　sand　had　gradually　hardened　over　the　bones；　but
remained　porous。　Water　had　trickled　through　it；　and　that　water　being
probably　charged　with　a　superfluity　of　carbonic　acid；　had　dissolved　all
the　phosphate　and　carbonate　of　lime；　and　the　bones　themselves　had　thus
decayed　and　entirely　disappeared；　but　as　the　sandstone　happened　to　have
consolidated　by　that　time；　the　precise　shape　of　the　bones　was　retained。
If　that　sandstone　had　remained　soft　a　little　longer；　we　should　have
known　nothing　whatsoever　of　the　existence　of　the　reptile　whose　bones　it
had　encased。

How　certain　it　is　that　a　vast　number　of　animals　which　have　existed　at
one　period　on　this　earth　have　entirely　perished；　and　left　no　trace
whatever　of　their　forms；　may　be　proved　to　you　by　other　considerations。
There　are　large　tracts　of　sandstone　in　various　parts　of　the　world；　in
which　nobody　has　yet　found　anything　but　footsteps。　　Not　a　bone　of　any
description；　but　an　enormous　number　of　traces　of　footsteps。　　There　is
no　question　about　them。　　There　is　a　whole　valley　in　Connecticut　covered
with　these　footsteps；　and　not　a　single　fragment　of　the　animals　which
made　them　has　yet　been　found。　　Let　me　mention　another　case　while　upon
that　matter；　which　is　even　more　surprising　than　those　to　which　I　have
yet　referred。　　There　is　a　limestone　formation　near　Oxford；　at　a　place
called　Stonesfield；　which　has　yielded　the　remains　of　certain　very
interesting　mammalian　animals；　and　up　to　this　time；　if　I　recollect
rightly；　there　have　been　found　seven　specimens　of　its　lower　jaws；　and
not　a　bit　of　anything　else；　neither　limb…bones　nor　skull；　or　any　part
whatever；　not　a　fragment　of　the　whole　system！　　Of　course；　it　would　be
preposterous　to　imagine　that　the　beasts　had　nothing　else　but　a　lower
jaw！　　The　probability　is；　as　Dr。　Buckland　showed；　as　the　result　of　his
observations　on　dead　dogs　in　the　river　Thames；　that　the　lower　jaw；　not
being　secured　by　very　firm　ligaments　to　the　bones　of　the　head；　and
being　a　weighty　affair；　would　easily　be　knocked　off；　or　might　drop　away
from　the　body　as　it　floated　in　water　in　a　state　of　decomposition。　The
jaw　would　thus　be　deposited　immediately；　while　the　rest　of　the　body
would　float　and　drift　away　altogether；　ultimately　reaching　the　sea；　and
perhaps　becoming　destroyed。　　The　jaw　becomes　covered　up　and　preserved　in
the　river　silt；　and　thus　it　comes　that　we　have　such　a　curious
circumstance　as　that　of　the　lower　jaws　in　the　Stonesfield　slates。　So
that；　you　see；　faulty　as　these　layers　of　stone　in　the　earth's　crust
are；　defective　as　they　necessari