the story of mankind-第48部分

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were　robbed　of　one　privilege　after　the　other；　until　finally；　during

the　first　year　of　the　sixteenth　century；　they　were　formally

made　a　part　of　the　soil　upon　which　they　lived。　The　Russian

peasants　ceased　to　be　free　men。　They　became　serfs　or　slaves

and　they　remained　serfs　until　the　year　1861；　when　their　fate

had　become　so　terrible　that　they　were　beginning　to　die　out。



In　the　seventeenth　century；　this　new　state　with　its　growing

territory　which　was　spreading　quickly　into　Siberia；　had　become

a　force　with　which　the　rest　of　Europe　was　obliged　to

reckon。　In　1618；　after　the　death　of　Boris　Godunow；　the

Russian　nobles　had　elected　one　of　their　own　number　to　be

Tsar。　He　was　Michael；　the　son　of　Feodor；　of　the　Moscow　family

of　Romanow　who　lived　in　a　little　house　just　outside　the

Kremlin。



In　the　year　1672　his　great…grandson；　Peter；　the　son　of　another

Feodor；　was　born。　When　the　child　was　ten　years　old；

his　step…sister　Sophia　took　possession　of　the　Russian　throne。

The　little　boy　was　allowed　to　spend　his　days　in　the　suburbs　of

the　national　capital；　where　the　foreigners　lived。　Surrounded

by　Scotch　barkeepers；　Dutch　traders；　Swiss　apothecaries；　Italian

barbers；　French　dancing　teachers　and　German　school…masters；

the　young　prince　obtained　a　first　but　rather　extraordinary

impression　of　that　far…away　and　mysterious　Europe　where

things　were　done　differently。



When　he　was　seventeen　years　old；　he　suddenly　pushed

Sister　Sophia　from　the　throne。　Peter　himself　became　the　ruler

of　Russia。　He　was　not　contented　with　being　the　Tsar　of　a

semi…barbarous　and　half…Asiatic　people。　He　must　be　the　sovereign

head　of　a　civilised　nation。　To　change　Russia　overnight

from　a　Byzantine…Tartar　state　into　a　European　empire　was　no

small　undertaking。　It　needed　strong　hands　and　a　capable

head。　Peter　possessed　both。　In　the　year　1698；　the　great

operation　of　grafting　Modern　Europe　upon　Ancient　Russia　was

performed。　The　patient　did　not　die。　But　he　never　got　over

the　shock；　as　the　events　of　the　last　five　years　have　shown　very

plainly。







RUSSIA　vs。　SWEDEN



RUSSIA　AND　SWEDEN　FIGHT　MANY　WARS　TO

DECIDE　WHO　SHALL　BE　THE　LEADING

POWER　OF　NORTH…EASTERN　EUROPE





IN　the　year　1698；　Tsar　Peter　set　forth　upon　his　first

voyage　to　western　Europe。　He　travelled　by　way　of　Berlin　and

went　to　Holland　and　to　England。　As　a　child　he　had　almost

been　drowned　sailing　a　homemade　boat　in　the　duck　pond　of

his　father's　country　home。　This　passion　for　water　remained

with　him　to　the　end　of　his　life。　In　a　practical　way　it　showed

itself　in　his　wish　to　give　his　land…locked　domains　access　to

the　open　sea。



While　the　unpopular　and　harsh　young　ruler　was　away

from　home；　the　friends　of　the　old　Russian　ways　in　Moscow　set

to　work　to　undo　all　his　reforms。　A　sudden　rebellion　among

his　life…guards；　the　Streltsi　regiment；　forced　Peter　to　hasten

home　by　the　fast　mail。　He　appointed　himself　executioner…in…

chief　and　the　Streltsi　were　hanged　and　quartered　and　killed　to

the　last　man。　Sister　Sophia；　who　had　been　the　head　of　the

rebellion；　was　locked　up　in　a　cloister　and　the　rule　of　Peter　be…

gan　in　earnest。　This　scene　was　repeated　in　the　year　1716　when

Peter　had　gone　on　his　second　western　trip。　That　time　the

reactionaries　followed　the　leadership　of　Peter's　half…witted

son；　Alexis。　Again　the　Tsar　returned　in　great　haste。　Alexis

was　beaten　to　death　in　his　prison　cell　and　the　friends　of　the

old　fashioned　Byzantine　ways　marched　thousands　of　dreary

miles　to　their　final　destination　in　the　Siberian　lead　mines。

After　that；　no　further　outbreaks　of　popular　discontent　took

place。　Until　the　time　of　his　death；　Peter　could　reform　in　peace。



It　is　not　easy　to　give　you　a　list　of　his　reforms　in　chronological

order。　The　Tsar　worked　with　furious　haste。　He　followed

no　system。　He　issued　his　decrees　with　such　rapidity　that　it　is

difficult　to　keep　count。　Peter　seemed　to　feel　that　everything

that　had　ever　happened　before　was　entirely　wrong。　The　whole

of　Russia　therefore　must　be　changed　within　the　shortest　possible

time。　When　he　died　he　left　behind　a　well…trained　army　of

200；000　men　and　a　navy　of　fifty　ships。　The　old　system　of　government

had　been　abolished　over　night。　The　Duma；　or　convention

of　Nobles；　had　been　dismissed　and　in　its　stead；　the　Tsar

had　surrounded　himself　with　an　advisory　board　of　state　officials；

called　the　Senate。



Russia　was　divided　into　eight　large　‘‘governments''　or　provinces。

Roads　were　constructed。　Towns　were　built。　Industries

were　created　wherever　it　pleased　the　Tsar；　without　any　regard

for　the　presence　of　raw　material。　Canals　were　dug　and　mines

were　opened　in　the　mountains　of　the　east。　In　this　land　of　illiterates；

schools　were　founded　and　establishments　of　higher　learning；

together　with　Universities　and　hospitals　and　professional

schools。　Dutch　naval　engineers　and　tradesmen　and　artisans

from　all　over　the　world　were　encouraged　to　move　to　Russia。

Printing　shops　were　established；　but　all　books　must　be　first　read

by　the　imperial　censors。　The　duties　of　each　class　of　society

were　carefully　written　down　in　a　new　law　and　the　entire　system

of　civil　and　criminal　laws　was　gathered　into　a　series　of　printed

volumes。　The　old　Russian　costumes　were　abolished　by　Imperial

decree；　and　policemen；　armed　with　scissors；　watching

all　the　country　roads；　changed　the　long…haired　Russian　mou…

jiks　suddenly　into　a　pleasing　imitation　of　smooth…shaven　west。

Europeans。



In　religious　matters；　the　Tsar　tolerated　no　division　of

power。　There　must　be　no　chance　of　a　rivalry　between　an

Emperor　and　a　Pope　as　had　happened　in　Europe。　In　the　year

1721；　Peter　made　himself　head　of　the　Russian　Church。　The

Patriarchate　of　Moscow　was　abolished　and　the　Holy　Synod

made　its　appearance　as　the　highest　source　of　authority　in　all

matters　of　the　Established　Church。



Since；　however；　these　many　reforms　could　not　be　success…

ful　while　the　old　Russian　elements　had　a　rallying　point　in　the

town　of　Moscow；　Peter　decided　to　move　his　government　to　a

new　capital。　Amidst　the　unhealthy　marshes　of　the　Baltic　Sea

the　Tsar　built　this　new　city。　He　began　to　reclaim　the　land　in

the　year　1703。　Forty　thousand　peasants　worked　for　years

to　lay　the　foundations　for　this　Imperial　city。　The　Swedes

attacked　Peter　and　tried　to　destroy　his　town　and　illness　and

misery　killed　tens　of　thousands　of　the　peasants。　But　the　work

was　continued；　winter　and　summer；　and　the　ready…made　town

soon　began　to　grow。　In　the　year　1712；　it　was　officially　de…

clared　to　be　the　‘‘Imperial　Residence。''　A　dozen　years　later

it　had　75；000　inhabitants。　Twice　a　year　the　whole　city　was

flooded　by　the　Neva。　But　the　terrific　will…power　of　the　Tsar

created　dykes　and　canals　and　the　floods　ceased　to　do　harm。

When　Peter　died　in　1725　he　was　the　owner　of　the　largest　city

in　northern　Europe。



Of　course；　this　sudden　growth　of　so　dangerous　a　rival　had

been　a　source　of　great　worry　to　all　the　neighbours。　From　his

side；　Peter　had　watched　with　interest　the　many　adventures　of

his　Baltic　rival；　the　kingdom　of　Sweden。　In　the　year　1654；

Christina；　the　only　daughter　of　Gustavus　Adolphus；　the　hero

of　the　Thirty　Years　War；　had　renounced　the　throne　and　had

gone　to　Rome　to　end　her　days　as　a　devout　Catholic。　A　Protestant

nephew　of　Gustavus　Adolphus　had　succeeded　the　last

Queen　of　the　House　of　Vasa。　Under　Charles　X　and　Charles

XI；　the　new　dynasty　had　brought　Sweden　to　its　highest　point

of　development。　But　in　1697；　Charles　XI　died　suddenly　and

was　succeeded　by　a　boy　of　fifteen；　Charles　XII。



This　was　the　moment　for　which　many　of　the　northern　states

had　waited。　During　the　great　religious　wars　of　the　seventeenth

century；　Sweden　had　grown　at　the　expense　of　her　neighbours。

The　time　had　come；　so　the　owners　thought；　to　balance　the　account。

At　once　war　broke　out　between　Russia；　Poland；　Denmark

and　Saxony　on　the　one　side；　and　Sweden　on　the　other。

The　raw　and　untrained　armies　of　Peter　were　disastrously　beaten

by　Charles　in　the　famous　battle　of　Narva　in　November　of

the　year　1700。　Then　Charles；　one　of　the　most　interesting　military

geniuses　of　that　century；　turned　against　his　other　enemies

and　for　nine　years　he　hacked　and　burned　his　way　through　the

villages　and　cities　of　Poland；　Saxony；　Denmark　and　the　Baltic

provinces；　while　Peter　drilled　and　trained　his　soldiers　in　distant

Russia。



As　a　result；　in　the　year　1709；　in　the　battle　of　Poltawa；　the

Moscovites　destroyed　the　exhausted　armies　of　Sweden。　Charles

continued　to　be　a　highly　picturesque　figure；　a　wonderful　hero

of　romance；　but　in　his　vain　attempt　to　have　his　revenge；　he

ruined　his　own　country。　In　the　year　1718；　he　was　accidentally

killed　or　assassinated　（we　do　not　know　which）　and　when　peace

was　made　in　1721；　in　the　town　of　Nystadt；　Sweden　had　lost　all

of　her　former　Baltic　possessions　except　Finland。　The　new

Russian　state；　created　by　Peter；　had　become　the　leading　power

of　northern　Europe。　But　already　a　new　rival　was　on　the

way。　The　Prussian　state　was　taking　shape。







THE　RISE　OF　PRUSSIA



THE　EXTRAORDINARY　RISE　OF　A　LITTLE

STATE　IN　A　DREARY　PART　OF　NORTHERN

GERMANY；　CALLED　PRUSSIA





THE　history　of　Prussia　is　the　history　of　a　frontier　district。

In　the　ninth　century；　Charlemagne　had　transferred　the　old

centre　of　civilisation　from　the　Mediterranean　to　the　wild　regions

of　northwestern　Europe。　His　Frankish　soldiers　had　pushed

the　frontier　of　Europe　further　and　further　towards　the　east。

They　had　conquered　many　lands　from　the　heathenish　Slavs　and

Lithuanians　who　were　living　in　the　plain　between　the　Baltic

Sea　and　the　Carpathian　Mountains；　and　the　Franks　administered

those　outlying　districts　just　as　the　United　States　used

to　administer　her　territories　before　they　achieved　the　dignity

of　statehood。



The　frontier　state　of　Brandenburg　had　been　originally

founded　by　Charlemagne　to　defend　his　eastern　possessions

against　raids　of　the　wild　Saxon　tribes。　The　Wends；　a　Slavic

tribe　which