the age of invention-第7部分

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s　the　upland　or　green…seed　cotton；　which　is　cleaned　on　the　Whitney　type　of　gin　and　was　first　made　commercially　available　by　Whitney's　invention。*

*　Roe；　〃English　and　American　Tool　Builders〃；　pp。　150…51。


More　than　half　of　this　enormous　crop　is　still　exported　in　spite　of　the　great　demand　at　home。　Cotton　became　and　has　continued　to　be　the　greatest　single　export　of　the　United　States。　In　ordinary　years　its　value　is　greater　than　the　combined　value　of　the　three　next　largest　exports。　It　is　on　cotton　that　the　United　States　has　depended　for　the　payment　of　its　trade　balance　to　Europe。

Other　momentous　results　followed　on　the　invention　of　the　cotton　gin。　In　1793　slavery　seemed　a　dying　institution；　North　and　South。　Conditions　of　soil　and　climate　made　slavery　unprofitable　in　the　North。　On　many　of　the　indigo；　rice；　and　tobacco　plantations　in　the　South　there　were　more　slaves　than　could　be　profitably　employed；　and　many　planters　were　thinking　of　emancipating　their　slaves；　when　along　came　this　simple　but　wonderful　machine　and　with　it　the　vision　of　great　riches　in　cotton；　for　while　slaves　could　not　earn　their　keep　separating　the　cotton　from　its　seeds　by　hand；　they　could　earn　enormous　profits　in　the　fields；　once　the　difficulty　of　extracting　the　seeds　was　solved。　Slaves　were　no　longer　a　liability　but　an　asset。　The　price　of　〃field　hands〃　rose；　and　continued　to　rise。　If　the　worn…out　lands　of　the　seaboard　no　longer　afforded　opportunity　for　profitable　employment；　the　rich　new　lands　of　the　Southwest　called　for　laborers；　and　yet　more　laborers。　Taking　slaves　with　them；　younger　sons　pushed　out　into　the　wilderness；　became　possessed　of　great　tracts　of　fertile　land；　and　built　up　larger　plantations　than　those　upon　which　they　had　been　born。　Cotton　became　King　of　the　South。

The　supposed　economic　necessity　of　slave　labor　led　great　men　to　defend　slavery；　and　politics　in　the　South　became　largely　the　defense　of　slavery　against　the　aggression；　real　or　fancied；　of　the　free　North。　The　rift　between　the　sections　became　a　chasm。　Then　came　the　War　of　Secession。

Though　Miller　was　dead；　Whitney　carried　on　the　fight　for　his　rights　in　Georgia。　His　difficulties　were　increased　by　a　patent　which　the　Government　at　Philadelphia　issued　in　May；　1796；　to　Hogden　Holmes；　a　mechanic　of　Augusta；　for　an　improvement　in　the　cotton　gin。　The　Holmes　machines　were　soon　in　common　use；　and　it　was　against　the　users　of　these　that　many　of　the　suits　for　infringement　were　brought。　Suit　after　suit　ran　its　course　in　the　Georgia　courts；　without　a　single　decision　in　the　inventor's　favor。　At　length；　however；　in　December；　1806；　the　validity　of　Whitney's　patent　was　finally　determined　by　decision　of　the　United　States　Circuit　Court　in　Georgia。　Whitney　asked　for　a　perpetual　injunction　against　the　Holmes　machine；　and　the　court；　finding　that　his　invention　was　basic；　granted　him　all　that　he　asked。

By　this　time；　however；　the　life　of　the　patent　had　nearly　run　its　course。　Whitney　applied　to　Congress　for　a　renewal；　but；　in　spite　of　all　his　arguments　and　a　favorable　committee　report；　the　opposition　from　the　cotton　States　proved　too　strong；　and　his　application　was　denied。　Whitney　now　had　other　interests。　He　was　a　great　manufacturer　of　firearms；　at　New　Haven；　and　as　such　we　shall　meet　him　again　in　a　later　chapter。



CHAPTER　III。　STEAM　IN　CAPTIVITY

For　the　beginnings　of　the　enslavement　of　steam；　that　mighty　giant　whose　work　has　changed　the　world　we　live　in；　we　must　return　to　the　times　of　Benjamin　Franklin。　James　Watt；　the　accredited　father　of　the　modern　steam　engine；　was　a　contemporary　of　Franklin；　and　his　engine　was　twenty…one　years　old　when　Franklin　died。　The　discovery　that　steam　could　be　harnessed　and　made　to　work　is　not；　of　course；　credited　to　James　Watt。　The　precise　origin　of　that　discovery　is　unknown。　The　ancient　Greeks　had　steam　engines　of　a　sort；　and　steam　engines　of　another　sort　were　pumping　water　out　of　mines　in　England　when　James　Watt　was　born。　James　Watt；　however；　invented　and　applied　the　first　effective　means　by　which　steam　came　to　serve　mankind。　And　so　the　modern　steam　engine　begins　with　him。

The　story　is　old；　of　how　this　Scottish　boy；　James　Watt；　sat　on　the　hearth　in　his　mother's　cottage；　intently　watching　the　steam　rising　from　the　mouth　of　the　tea　kettle；　and　of　the　great　role　which　this　boy　afterwards　assumed　in　the　mechanical　world。　It　was　in　1763；　when　he　was　twenty…eight　and　had　the　appointment　of　mathematical…instrument　maker　to　the　University　of　Glasgow；　that　a　model　of　Newcomen's　steam　pumping　engine　was　brought　into　his　shop　for　repairs。　One　can　perhaps　imagine　the　feelings　with　which　James　Watt；　interested　from　his　youth　in　mechanical　and　scientific　instruments；　particularly　those　which　dealt　with　steam；　regarded　this　Newcomen　engine。　Now　his　interest　was　vastly。　quickened。　He　set　up　the　model　and　operated　it；　noticed　how　the　alternate　heating　and　cooling　of　its　cylinder　wasted　power；　and　concluded；　after　some　weeks　of　experiment；　that；　in　order　to　make　the　engine　practicable；　the　cylinder　must　be　kept　hot；　〃always　as　hot　as　the　steam　which　entered　it。〃　Yet　in　order　to　condense　the　steam　there　must　be　a　cooling　of　the　vessel。　The　problem　was　to　reconcile　these　two　conditions。

At　length　the　pregnant　idea　occurred　to　himthe　idea　of　the　separate　condenser。　It　came　to　him　on　a　Sunday　afternoon　in　1765；　as　he　walked　across　Glasgow　Green。　If　the　steam　were　condensed　in　a　vessel　separate　from　the　cylinder；　it　would　be　quite　possible　to　keep　the　condensing　vessel　cool　and　the　cylinder　hot　at　the　same　time。　Next　morning　Watt　began　to　put　his　scheme　to　the　test　and　found　it　practicable。　He　developed　other　ideas　and　applied　them。　So　at　last　was　born　a　steam　engine　that　would　work　and　multiply　man's　energies　a　thousandfold。

After　one　or　two　disastrous　business　experiences；　such　as　fall　to　the　lot　of　many　great　inventors；　perhaps　to　test　their　perseverance；　Watt　associated　himself　with　Matthew　Boulton；　a　man　of　capital　and　of　enterprise；　owner　of　the　Soho　Engineering　Works；　near　Birmingham。　The　firm　of　Boulton　and　Watt　became　famous；　and　James　Watt　lived　till　August　19；　1819lived　to　see　his　steam　engine　the　greatest　single　factor　in　the　new　industrial　era　that　had　dawned　for　English…speaking　folk。

Boulton　and　Watt；　however；　though　they　were　the　pioneers；　were　by　no　means　alone　in　the　development　of　the　steam　engine。　Soon　there　were　rivals　in　the　field　with　new　types　of　engines。　One　of　these　was　Richard　Trevithick　in　England；　another　was　Oliver　Evans　of　Philadelphia。　Both　Trevithick　and　Evans　invented　the　high…pressure　engine。　Evans　appears　to　have　applied　the　high　pressure　principle　before　Trevithick；　and　it　has　been　said　that　Trevithick　borrowed　it　from　Evans；　but　Evans　himself　never　said　so；　and　it　is　more　likely　that　each　of　these　inventors　worked　it　out　independently。　Watt　introduced　his　steam　to　the　cylinder　at　only　slightly　more　than　atmospheric　pressure　and　clung　tenaciously　to　the　low…pressure　theory　all　his　life。　Boulton　and　Watt；　indeed；　aroused　by　Trevithick's　experiments　in　high…pressure　engines；　sought　to　have　Parliament　pass　an　act　forbidding　high　pressure　on　the　ground　that　the　lives　of　the　public　were　endangered。　Watt　lived　long　enough；　however；　to　see　the　high…pressure　steam　engine　come　into　general　favor；　not　only　in　America　but　even　in　his　own　conservative　country。

Less　sudden；　less　dramatic；　than　that　of　the　cotton　gin；　was　the　entrance　of　the　steam　engine　on　the　American　industrial　stage；　but　not　less　momentous。　The　actions　and　reactions　of　steam　in　America　provide　the　theme　for　an　Iliad　which　some　American　Homer　may　one　day　write。　They　include　the　epic　of　the　coal　in　the　Pennsylvania　hills；　the　epic　of　the　ore；　the　epic　of　the　railroad；　the　epic　of　the　great　city；　and；　in　general；　the　subjugation　of　a　continental　wilderness　to　the　service　of　a　vast　civilization。

The　vital　need　of　better　transportation　was　uppermost　in　the　thoughts　of　many　Americans。　It　was　seen　that　there　could　be　no　national　unity　in　a　country　so　far　flung　without　means　of　easy　intercourse　between　one　group　of　Americans　and　another。　The　highroads　of　the　new　country　were；　for　the　most　part；　difficult　even　for　the　man　on　horseback；　and　worse　for　those　who　must　travel　by　coach　or　post…chaise。　Inland　from　the　coast　and　away　from　the　great　rivers　there　were　no　roads　of　any　sort；　nothing　but　trails。　Highways　were　essential；　not　only　for　the　permanent　unity　of　the　United　States；　but　to　make　available　the　wonderful　riches　of　the　inland　country；　across　the　Appalachian　barrier　and　around　the　Great　Lakes；　into　which　American　pioneers　had　already　made　their　way。

Those　immemorial　pathways；　the　great　rivers；　were　the　main　avenues　of　traffic　with　the　interior。　So；　of　course；　when　men　thought　of　improving　transportation；　they　had　in　mind　chiefly　transportation　by　water；　and　that　is　why　the　earliest　efforts　of　American　inventors　were　applied　to　the　means　of　improving　traffic　and　travel　by　water　and　not　by　land。

The　first　men　to　spend　their　time　in　trying　to　apply　steam　power　to　the　propulsion　of　a　boat　were　contemporaries　of　Benjamin　Franklin。　Those　who　worked　without　Watt's　engine　could　hardly　succeed。　One　of　the　earliest　of　these　was　William　Henry　of　Pennsylvania。　Henry；　in　1763；　had　the　idea　of　applying　power　to　paddle　wheels；　and　constructed　a　boat；　but　his　boat　sank；　and　no　result　followed；　unless　it　may　be　that　John　Fitch　and　Robert　Fulton；　both　of　whom　were　visitors　at　Henry's　house；　received　some　suggestions　from　him。　James　Rumsey　of　Maryland　began　experiments　as　early　as　1774　and　by　1786　had　a　boat　that　made　four　miles　an　hour　against　the　current　of　the　Potomac。

The　most　interesting　of　these　early　and　unsuccessful　inventors　is　John　Fitch；　who；　was　a　Connecticut　clockmaker　living　in　Philadelphia。　He　was　eccentric　and　irregular　in　his　habits　and　quite　ignorant　of　the　steam　engine。　But　he　conceived　the　idea　of　a　steamboat　and　set　to　work　to　make　one。　The　record　of　Fitch's　life　is　something　of　a　tragedy。　At　the　best　he　was　an　unhappy　man　and　was　always　close　to　poverty。　As　a　young　man　he　had　left　his　family　because　of　unhappy　domestic　relations　with　his　wife。　One　may　find　in　the　record　of　his　undertakings　which　he　left　in　the　Philadelphia　Library；　to　be　opened　thirty　years　after　its　receipt；　thes