lecture iii-第5部分

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the　initiative　of　the　lord　of　the　manor；　and　Mr　Schimanov　has
produced　a　curious　case；　in　which　such　re…allotment　was　made　by
the　direct　order　of　a　provincial　Governor；　who　thought　that
justice　required　that　the　number　of　shares；　owned　by　each
household；　should　correspond　to　the　number　of　souls　composing　it。
This　happened　not　longer　ago　than　the　second　half　of　the
seventeenth　century　in　the　Government　of　Kharkov；　where
inequality　of　shares　had　been　up　to　that　time　the　general　rule。
It　is　only　by　a　general　agreement　between　the　people　and　the
authorities　that　we　can　explain　the　rapid　expansion　of　the
present　system。　We　do　not　find　any　trace　of　such　redistributions
before　the　end　of　the　seventeenth　century；　when　the　borough　of
Schouia　began　to　make　new　allotments　of　ground　every　ten　years。*
　　　　Having　now　finished　with　the　past　history　of　the　Russian
village　commune；　we　shall　proceed　to　the　study　of　its　modern
arrangements。　These　have　formed　the　subject　of　very　curious
investigations；　which　have　been　carried　on　during　the　last　few
years　by　a　number　of　young　Russian　economists；　employed　by　the
elective　councils　or　〃zemstva〃　of　our　provinces。　Their　work　will
probably　be　as　valuable　to　coming　generations；　as　that　performed
in　England　a　century　ago　by　Messrs　Sinclair　and　Marshall；　or　as
that；　which　in　our　own　day　is　still　going　on　in　India　under　the
enlightened　supervision　of　the　Indian　Settlement　Commissioners。　I
shall　make　free　use　of　the　rich　material；　which　these　skilful　and
untiring　workers　have　accumulated；　in　order　to　present　to　you　a
picture　of　the　prevailing　system；　the　mir　or　village　community　of
to…day。
　　　　According　to　the　law　of　emancipation　promulgated　the　19th
February　1861；　the　peasantry　continue　to　possess　an　organisation
quite　distinct　from　that　of　the　other　classes　of　society。　The
ancient　〃volost〃　（or　mark）　is　preserved　or　rather　revived；　and
the　villages　are；　as　they　were　centuries　ago；　the　administrative
units　of　which　it　is　formed。　The　volost　and　the　village　have
alike　their　elected　authorities；　the　right　of　election　being
based　on　a　kind　of　universal　suffrage；　exercised　by　all　the
grown…up　men　of　the　community。　But；　differing　in　this　from　the
French　〃commune；〃　and　the　sections　composing　it；　the　Russian
volost　and　village　accord　no　right　of　suffrage　to　persons
belonging　to　any　other　social　position　than　that　of　peasant
（krestianine；　a　word；　the　first　meaning　of　which　was　Christian）。
A　merchant　or　a　nobleman　may　reside　for　years　in　a　village；　he
will　not　thereby　acquire　any　right　to　meddle　with　its　internal
administration。　To　explain　the　reason　of　such　an　anomaly；　we　must
keep　in　view　the　circumstances　under　which　the　law　of　1861　was
promulgated。　its　chief　purpose　was　to　liberate　the　serfs　from
their　dependence　on　the　landed　aristocracy。　The　squire；　the
〃pomeschick；〃　was　the　enemy　against　whom　they　had　to　fight；　and
it　was　feared　that　he　could　easily　regain　the　influence；　which
had　lasted　for　centuries；　if　he　and　the　persons　in　his　service
were　allowed　to　have　a　vote　in　communal　concerns。　It　was
therefore　to　prevent　a　practical　restoration　of　feudal　power；
that　the　upper　classes　were　debarred　from　all　interference　in
village　matters。　But　the　legislators　forgot　the　dangers；　which
arise　from　the　artificial　isolation　of　an　ill…educated　class；
both　for　itself　and　for　the　other　orders　of　society。　I　know　no
country；　in　which　the　enlightened　classes　have　so　little
opportunity　of　exercising　that　moral　influence；　without　which　no
social　progress　can　be　really　achieved。　Not　only　the　squire；　be
he　a　nobleman　or　a　merchant；　but　also　the　parish　priest　（the
pope）；　are　excluded　by　law　from　the　right　to　vote　in　the　village
assembly。　Questions　concerning　public　instruction　and　public
health　are　daily　discussed　and　settled　by　illiterate　men；　very
often　to　the　injury　of　the　community；　without　any　reference　to
the　wishes　and　intentions　of　the　more　enlightened　inhabitants；
whose　interference　in　such　cases　would　be　considered　a　direct
infringement　of　the　law。　This　is　certainly　a　great　wrong；　a　wrong
which　is　clearly　seen；　both　by　society　and　by　Government。　The
absenteeism　of　the　higher　classes　and　their　dislike　of　that
country　life　which　is　so　familiar　in　England；　certainly　finds　its
chief　root　in　what　I　may　call　the　〃privilegium　odiosum〃　which　is
attached　to　the　status。　On　the　other　hand；　the　ordinary　peasant；
left　without　that　natural　control　and　guidance　which　the
enlightened　classes　are　called　upon　to　exercise　towards　the　more
ignorant；　is　naturally　led　to　look　for　protection　and　help　to
those　of　his　own　rank　who　have　succeeded　in　securing　for
themselves　a　certain　amount　of　material　wealth。　This　class　of
rich　peasants；　known　under　the　name　of　〃koulaks；〃　which　means　a
man　knowing　how　to　keep　money　in　his　own　hands；　is　as　a　rule　no
better　educated　and　far　more　selfish　and　immoral　than　the　rest　of
the　country　people。　The　disintegrating　influence；　which　such　a
class　exercises；　has　been　rightly　recognised　in　the　nickname　with
which　the　peasantry　have　dubbed　its　members；　I　mean　that　of
〃miroied。〃　or　〃eaters　of　the　mir〃　it　is　to　such　speculators　and
monopolists　that　the　people　are　abandoned；　it　may　be　in　the
secret　hope　of　rendering　impossible　any　good　understanding
between　them　and　the　higher　classes　of　the　nation。　For　no　doubt；
such　an　understanding　might　become　a　serious　obstacle　in　the　way
of　the　all…powerful　bureaucracy；　which　rules　over　the　masses　with
that　insolence　and　harshness　which　are　usually　only　met　with　in
the　relations　of　conquerors　to　a　conquered　nation。　Instead　of
giving　the　higher　classes　their　share　in　the　affairs　of　the
village；　the　Government　has　lately　increased　the　number　of
administrative　oppressors；　by　instituting　a　new　office；　that　of
〃Commander　of　the　district。〃　This　office　is　to　be　exclusively
filled　by　members　of　the　hereditary　nobility。　With　no　other
control　over　them；　than　that　of　the　Governor　of　the　province；
these　newly…created　officers　are　called　upon　to　exercise　a
boundless　authority；　both　executive　and　judicial；　over　the
villages　in　their　district。　There　is　no　judicial　appeal　against
their　doings；　for　they　are　at　once　police　officers　making　their
own　by…laws；　and　magistrates　authorised　to　decide　questions　of
the　infringement　of　these　same　by…laws；　they　are　even　the
executioners　of　their　own　sentences；　for　the　right　of　flogging　on
the　spot；　where　the　misdemeanour　has　been　committed；　is　openly
recognised　as　belonging　to　them。
　　　　It　is　not　difficult　to　foresee　the　effect　which　the
introduction　of　these　new　officers　will　have　on　the　life　of　the
people。　Having　been　hitherto　taught　to　look　on　the　neighbouring
squire　as　a　stranger；　they　will　now　come　to　consider　him　as　their
natural　enemy。
　　　　But　let　us　go　back　to　the　study　of　the　administrative
organisation　of　the　Russian　mir。
　　　　Every　village　is　authorised　to　have　its　popular　assembly。
This　folkmote　is　the　regular　heir　of　the　〃vechas〃　and　〃koupas〃
still　preserved；　as　we　have　seen；　in　the　sixteenth　and
seventeenth　centuries；　among　the　South…Western　communes　of
Russia；　and；　what　is　not　less　curious；　also　by　the　manorial
system　during　the　same　centuries。　When　I　say　that　all　the　adult
members　of　the　village　are　called　upon　to　vote　at　these　popular
assemblies；　I　mean　that　this　is　the　case　in　the　majority　of
Russian　villages；　in　which　the　inhabitants　are　likewise　partners
in　the　common　lands　of　the　village。　It　is　not　the　case　in　the
yearly　increasing　number　of　villages；　in　which　the　new…comers　are
only　permitted　to　reside　in　the　commune；　but　are　prevented　from
sharing　in　the　benefit　which　the　commune　derives　from　its
property　in　land。　In　Germany　and　Switzerland；　where　centuries　ago
new…comers；　known　under　the　name　of　〃Beisaszen〃　or
〃Hintersaszen；〃　〃domicilies；〃　〃manants；〃　etc。；　were　allowed　to
settle　side　by　side　with　the　proprietors　of　the　common　land　（the
gemeingut　or　allmend）；　two　kinds　of　popular　assemblies　are　known。
The　one　is　composed　of　all　the　adult　inhabitants　without
distinction；　the　other　of　those　who　have　a　share　in　the　common
land。　The　first　assembly　makes　by…laws；　chooses　officers；　and
passes　measures　which　concern　the　common　good。　The　second
administers　the　lands　of　the　village；　appoints　those　entrusted
with　the　care　of　them；　and　distributes　to　the　several　partners
their　shares　in　the　commons。　The　laws　of　some　Swiss　cantons；
therefore；　establish　a　difference　between　the　〃politische
Gemeinde；〃　or　commune；　composed　of　all　the　male　inhabitants；　and
the　〃burgerliche　Gemeinde；〃　to　which　all　the　sharers　in　the
common　land；　male　and　female　alike；　belong。　Now　this　difference
is　unknown　in　Russia；　where　political　rights　are　exclusively
exercised　by　those　inhabitants　who　are　at　the　same　time　sharers
in　the　common　land。
　　　　The　officer　to　whom　the　assembly　entrusts　the　administration
of　the　village　is　called　the　village　elder。　We　find　the　same
officer　in　the　old　Russian　communes；　both　in　the　so…called　〃black
hundreds〃　in　other　words；　in　the　villages　inhabited　by
free…commoners　　and　also　on　the　lands　of　manorial　lords。
Monastic　charters；　among　other　documents；　very　frequently　mention
the　election　of　these　officers；　who　are　sometimes　called；
especially　in　the　South…Western　communes；　〃bourgmistr〃　　a　name
evidently　derived　from　the　German　burgermeister；　and　showing；　to
a　certain　extent；　the　influence　exercised　by　German　municipal　law
on　the　local　organisation　of　Lithuania　and　Little　Russia。
　　　　It　is　the　village　elder；　the　starosta；　who　represents　the
commune　in　its　relations　with　the　district　and　provincial
authorities。　It　is　he　who　collects　the　taxes；　exercises　some
supervision　over　the　way　in　which　the　commune　keeps　in　repair　the
roads　and　pubic　buildings；　sees　that　the　law　concerning
obligatory　fire　insurance　is　obeyed；　and　carries　into　effect　the
various　administrative　enactments　which　the　police　authorities
and　the　local　assemblies　of　the　zemstvo　are　very　liberal　in
creating。　But　the　most　important　functions　of　the　commune；　that
of　apportioning　personal　taxation　and　making　periodical
assessments　of　common　land；　are　performed　by　the　popular　assembly
or　mir。　Two…thirds　of　the　whole　number　of　voters　are　emp