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酔楯荷恬: 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈 梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何! 泌惚云慕短嗤堋響頼���誅卒亮茂�俊彭堋響��辛聞喘貧圭 "辺茄欺厘議箝誓匂" 孔嬬 才 "紗秘慕禰" 孔嬬��


       the basis of production。  Or�察�
 
     ´ in the course of a revolution�察�a nation may divide large estates 
       into plots�察�thus altering the character of production in 
       consequence of the new distribution。  Or�察 �
 
     ´ legislation may perpetuate land ownership in certain families�察�or 
       allocate labor as a hereditary privilege�察�thus consolidating it 
       into a caste system。 
 
In all these cases ��and they have all occurred in history�� it seems that 
distribution is not regulated and determined by production but�察�on the 
contrary�察�production by distribution。  
 
Distribution�察�according to the most superficial interpretation�察�is 
distribution of products�察�it is thus removed farther from production and 
made quasi´independent of it。  But�察�before distribution becomes 
distribution of products�察�it is 
 
      ��1�� distribution of the means of production�察�and 
 
      ��2�� ��which is another aspect of the same situation�� distribution 
          of the members of society among the various types of 
          production ��the subsuming of the individuals under definite 
          relations of production��。  
 
It is evident that the distribution of products is merely a result of 
this distribution  which is comprised in the production process and 
determines the structure of production。  To examine production divorced 
from this distribution which is a constituent part of it�察�is obviously 
idle abstraction�察�whereas conversely the distribution of products is 
automatically determined by that distribution which forms a primary 
factor of production。  Ricardo�察�the economist of production _par 
excellence_�察�whose object was the understanding of modern production and 
of its distinct social structure�察�for this very reason declares that 
distribution�察�_not_ production�察�is the proper subject of contemporary 
political economy。  This is a witness to the banality of those 
economists who proclaim production as an eternal truth�察�and confine 
history to the domain of distribution。  
 
The question as to the relation between that form of distribution that 
determines production and production itself�察�belongs obviously to the 
sphere of production。  If it should be said that�察�in this case at least�察�
since production must proceed from a specific distribution of the means 
of production�察�distribution is to this extent antecedent to�察�and a 
prerequisite of�察�production�察�then the reply would be as follows。  
Production has indeed its conditions and prerequisites which are 
constituent elements of it。  At the very outset�察�these may have seemed 
to be naturally evolved。  In the course of production�察�however�察�they are 
transformed from naturally evolved factors into historical ones�察�and�察�
although they may appear as natural preconditions for any one period�察�
they are the historical result of another period。  For example�察�the 
employment of machinery led to changes in the distribution of both the 
means of production and the product。  Modern�察�large´scale landed 
property has been brought about not only by modern trade and modern 
industry�察�but also by the application of the latter to agriculture。  
 
The above´mentioned questions can be ultimately resolved into this�此�what 
role do general historical conditions play in production and the 
relations of production to the historical development as a whole�拭�This 
question clearly belongs to the analysis and discussion of production。  
 
In the trivial form�察�however�察�in which these questions have been raised 
above�察�they can be dealt with quite briefly。  Conquests may lead to 
either of three results。  
 
     ´ The conquering nation may impose its own mode of production upon 
       the conquered people ��this was done�察�for example�察�by the English 
       in Ireland during this century�察�and to some extent in India���察�or�察�
 
     ´ it may refrain from interfering in the old mode of production and 
       be content with tribute ��e。g。�察�Turks and Romans���察�or�察�
 
     ´ interaction may take place between the two�察�giving rise to a new 
       system as a synthesis ��this occurred partly in the Germanic 
       conquests��。  
 
In any case�察�it is the mode of production  whether that of the 
conquering nation�察�or of the conquered�察�or the new system brought about 
by a merging of the two  that determines the new mode of distribution 
employed。  Although the latter appears to be a precondition of the new 
period of production�察�it is in its turn a result of production�察�a result 
not simply occassioned by the historical evolution of production in 
general�察�but by a specific historical form of production。  
 
The Mongols�察�for example�察�who caused devastation in Russia�察�acted in 
accordance with their mode of production ��cattle breeding�� for which 
large�察�uninhabited tracts are a fundamental requirement。  The Germanic 
barbarians�察�whose traditional mode of production was agriculture with 
the aid of serfs�察�and who lived scattered over the countryside�察�could 
more easily adapt the Roman provinces to their requirements because the 
concentration of landed property carried out there had already uprooted 
the older agricultural relations。  It is a long´established view that 
over certain epochs�察�people lived by plunder。  But in order to be able 
to plunder�察�there must be something to be plundered�察�and this implies 
production。  Moreover�察�the manner of plunder depends itself on the 
manner of production  e。g。�察�a stock´jobbing nation cannot be robbed in 
the same way as a nation of cowherds。  
 
The means of production may be robbed directly in the form of slaves。  
But in that case�察�it is necessary that the structure of production in 
the country to which the slave is abducted admits of slave labor�察�or ��as 
in South America�察�etc。�� a mode of production appropriate to slave labor 
has to be evolved。  
 
Laws may perpetuate a particular means of production  e。g。�察�land�察�in 
certain families。  These laws acquire economic significance only if 
large´scale landed property is in keeping with the social mode of 
production  as for instance in Britain。  Agriculture was carried on in 
France on a small scale�察�despite the existence of large estates�察�which 
were therefore parcelled out by the Revolution。  But is it possible 
��e。g。�察�by law�� to perpetuate the division of land into small lots�拭�
Landed property tends to become concentrated again�察�despite these laws。  
The influence exercised by laws on the preservation of existing 
conditions of distribution�察�and the effect they thereby exert on 
production has to be examined separately。  
 
 
     ��c�� Lastly�察�Exchange and Circulation 
     
Circulation is merely a particular phase of exchange�察�or of exchange 
regarded in its totality。  
 
Since exchange is simply an intermediate phase between production and 
distribution�察�which is determined by production�察�and consumption�察�since 
consumption is moreover itself an aspect of production�察�the latter 
obviously comprises also exchange as one of its aspects。  
 
Firstly�察�it is evident that exchange of activities and skills�察�which 
takes place in production itself�察�is a direct and essential part of 
production。  Secondly�察�the same applies to the exchange of products in 
so far as this exchange is a means to manufacture the finished product 
intended for immediate consumption。  The action of exchange in this 
respect is comprised in the concept of production。  Thirdly�察�what is 
known as exchange between dealer and dealer�察�both with respect to its 
organization and as a productive activity�察�is entirely determined by 
production。  Exchange appears to exist independently alongside 
production and detached from it only in the last stage�察�when the product 
is exchanged for immediate consumption。  But�察�
 
     ��1�� no exchange is possible without division of labor�察�whether this 
         is naturally evolved or is already the result of an historical 
         process�察�
 
     ��2�� private exchange presupposes private production�察�
 
     ��3�� the intensity of exchange�察�its extent and nature�察�are 
         determined by the development and structure of production  
         e。g。�察�exchange between town and country�察�exchange in the 
         countryside�察�in the town�察�etc。  All aspects of exchange to this 
         extent appear either to be directly comprised in production or 
         else determined by it。  
 
The conclusion which follows from this is�察�not that production�察�
distribution�察�exchange and consumption are identical�察�but that they are 
links�察�or sections�察�of a single whole�察�different aspect of one unit。  
Production is the decisive phase both with regard to the contradictory 
aspects of production and with regard to the other phases。  The process 
always starts afresh with production。  That exchange and consumption 
cannot be the decisive elements�察�is obvious�察�and the same applies to 
distribution in the sense of distribution of products。  distribution of 
the factors of production thus determines the specific mode of 
consumption�察�distribution�察�exchange and the _specific relations of these 
different phases to one another_。  Production�察�_in the narrow sense_�察�
however�察�is in its turn also determined by the other aspects。  For 
example�察�if the market�察�or the sphere of exchange�察�expands�察�then the 
volume of production grows and tends to become more differentiated。  
Production also changes in consequence to changes in distribution  
e。g。�察�concentration of capital�察�different distribution of the population 
in town and countryside�察�and the like。  Production is�察�finally�察�
determined by the demands of consumption。  There is an interaction 
between the various aspects。  Such interaction takes place in any 
organic entity。  
 
 
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