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                             INTRODUCTION TO  
             A CONTRIBUTION TO A CRITIQUE OF POLITICAL ECONOMY 
 
 
          Written between end of August and middle September 1857。 
 
          Marx intended this to be the Introduction to his  
          _Contribution to a Critique of Political Economy_ ��1859���察�
          but�察�as his Preface to that work notes�察�he decided to  
          omit it。 
 
          The unfinished rough draft�察�which was found among Marx's 
          papers after his death。  First published 1903�察�in _Die  
          Neue Zeit_。  Would become the first manuscript in the 
          _Grundrisse_。  
 
 
    I。 PRODUCTION�察�CONSUMPTION�察�DISTRIBUTION�察�EXCHANGE ��CIRCULATION�� 
 
 
                   3。 The Method of Political Economy 
 
When examining a given country from the standpoint of political economy�察�
we begin with its population�察�the division of the population into 
classes�察�town and country�察�the sea�察�the different branches of 
production�察�export and import�察�annual production and consumption�察�
prices�察�etc。  
 
It would seem to be the proper thing to start with the real and concrete 
elements�察�with the actual preconditions  e。g。�察�to start in the sphere 
of the whole economy with population  which forms the basis and the 
subject of the whole social process of production。  Closer consideration 
shows�察�however�察�that this is wrong。  Population is an abstraction if�察�
for instance�察�one disregards the classes of which it is composed。  These 
classes�察�in turn�察�remain empty terms if one does not know the factors on 
which they depend  e。g。�察�wage´labor�察�capital�察�and so on。  These 
presuppose exchange�察�division of labor�察�prices�察�etc。  For example�察�
capital without wage´labor�察�without value�察�money�察�prices�察�etc。�察�is 
nothing。  If one were to take population as the point of departure�察�it 
would be a very vague notion of a complex whole and through closer 
definition�察�one would arrive analytically at increasingly simple 
concepts�察�from imaginary concrete terms�察�one would move to more and more 
tenuous abstractions�察�until one reached the most simple definition。  
From there�察�it would be necessary to make the journey again in the 
opposite direction until one arrived once more at the concept of 
population�察�which is this time not a vague notion of a whole�察�but a 
totality comprising many determinations and relations。  The first course 
is the historical one taken by political economy at tis inception。  The 
17th century economists�察�for example�察�always took as their 
starting´point the living organism�察�the population�察�the nation�察�the 
state�察�several states�察�etc。�察�but analysis led them always�察�in the end�察�
to the discovery of a few decisive abstract�察�general relations ��such as 
division of labor�察�money�察�and value��。  When these separate factors were 
more or less clearly deduced and established�察�economic systems were 
evolved which from simple concepts�察�such as labor�察�division of labor�察�
demand�察�exchange value�察�advanced to categories like state�察�international 
exchange and world market。  This latter is obviously the correct 
scientific method。  The concrete concept is concrete because it is a 
synthesis of many definitions�察�thus representing the unity of diverse 
aspects。  It appears�察�therefore�察�in reasoning as a summing´up�察�a result�察�
and not as the starting´point  although it is the real point of 
origin�察�and thus also the point of origin of perception and imagination。  
The first procedure attenuates meaningful images to abstract 
definitions�察�the second leads from abstract definitions by way of 
reasoning to the reproduction of the concrete situation。  Hegel 
accordingly conceived the illusory idea that the real world is the 
result of thinking�察�which causes its own synthesis�察�its own deepening�察�
and its own movement�察�whereas the method of advancing from the abstract 
to the concrete is simply the way in which thinking assimilates the 
concrete and reproduces it as a concrete mental category。  This is�察�
however�察�by no means the process of evolution of the concrete world 
itself。  For example�察�the simplest economic category  e。g。�察�exchange 
value  presupposes population�察�a population moreover which produces 
under definite conditions�察�as well as a distinct kind of family�察�or 
community�察�or state�察�etc。  Exchange value cannot exist except as an 
abstract�察�_unilateral_ relation of an already existing concrete organic 
whole。  But exchange value as a category leads an antediluvian 
existence。  Thus�察�to consciousness  and this comprises philosophical 
consciousness  which regards the comprehending mind as the real man�察�
and hence the comprehended world as such as the only real world�察�to 
consciousness�察�therefore�察�the evolution of categories appears as the 
actual process of production  which�察�unfortunately�察�is given an 
impulse from outside  whose result is the world�察�and this ��which is 
however again a tautological expression�� is true in so far as the 
concrete totality regarded as a conceptual mental totality�察�as a mental 
fact�察�is indeed a product of thinking�察�of comprehension�察�but it is by no 
means a product of the idea which evolves spontaneously and who think 
proceeds outside and above perception and imagination�察�but is the result 
of the assimilation and transformation of perceptions and images into 
concepts。  The totality as a conceptual entity seen by the intellect is 
a product of the thinking intellect�察�which assimilates the world in the 
only way open to it�察�a way which differs from the artistic�察�religious 
and practically intelligent assimilation of the world。  The concrete 
subject remains outside the intellect and independent of it  that is�察�
so long as the intellect adopts a purely speculative�察�purely theoretical 
attitude。  The subject�察�society�察�must always be envisaged therefore as 
the precondition of comprehension�察�even when the theoretical method is 
employed。  
 
But have not these simple categories also an independent historical or 
natural existence preceding that of the more concrete ones�拭�This 
depends。  Hegel�察�for example�察�correctly takes ownership  the simplest 
legal relation of the subject  as the point of departure of the 
philosophy of law。  No ownership exists�察�however�察�before the family or 
the relations of master and servant are evolved�察�and these are much more 
concrete relations。  It would�察�on the other hand�察�be correct to say that 
families and entire tribes exist which have as yet only _possessions_ 
and not _property_。  The simpler category appears�察�thus�察�as a relation 
of simple family or tribal communities to property。  In societies which 
have reached a higher stage�察�the category appears as a comparatively 
simple relation existing in a more advanced community。  The concrete 
substratum underlying the relation of ownership is�察�however�察�always 
presupposed。  One can conceive an individual savage who has possessions�察�
possession in this case�察�however�察�is not a legal relation。  It is 
incorrect that in the course of historical development possession gave 
rise to the family。  On the contrary�察�possession always presupposes this 
;more concrete category;。  One may�察�nevertheless�察�conclude that the 
simple categories represent relations or conditions which may reflect 
the immature concrete situation without as yet positing the more complex 
relation or condition which is conceptually expressed in the more 
concrete category�察�on the other hand�察�the same category may be retained 
as a subordinate relation in more developed concrete circumstances。  
Money may exist and has existed in historical time before capital�察�
banks�察�wage´labor�察�etc。�察�came into being。  In this respect�察�it can be 
said that the simpler category expresses relations in a more advanced 
entity�察�relations which already existed historically before the entity 
had developed the aspects expressed in a more concrete category。  The 
procedure of abstract reasoning which advances from the simplest to more 
complex concepts to that extent conforms to actual historical 
development。  
 
It is true�察�on the other hand�察�that there are certain highly´developed 
��but nevertheless historically immature�� social formations which employ 
some of the most advanced economic forms  e。g。�察�cooperation�察�developed 
division of labor�察�etc。   without having developed any money at all  
for instance�察�Peru。  In Slavonic communities�察�too�察�money  and it's 
precondition�察�exchange  is of little or no importance within the 
individual community�察�but is used on the borders where commerce with 
other communities takes place�察�and it is altogether wrong to assume that 
exchange within the community is an original constituent element。  On 
the contrary�察�in the beginning exchange tends to arise in the 
intercourse of different communities with one another�察�rather than among 
members of the same community。  Moreover�察�although money begins to play 
a considerable role very early and in diverse ways�察�it is known to have 
been a dominant factor in antiquity only among nations developed in a 
particular direction  i。e。�察�merchant nations。  Even among Greeks and 
Romans ��the most advanced nations of antiquity�� money reaches its full 
development�察�which is presupposed in modern bourgeois society�察�only in 
the period of their disintegration。  The full potential of this quite 
simple category thus emerges historically not in the most advanced 
phases of society�察�and it certainly does not penetrate into all economic 
relations。  For example�此�taxes in kind and deliveries in kind remained 
the basis of the Roman empire even at the height of its development�察�
indeed�察�a completely´evolved monetary system existed in Rome only in the 
army�察�and it never permeated the whole complex of labor。  Although the 
simpler category�察�therefore�察�may have existed historically before the 
more concrete category�察�its complete intensive and extensive development 
can nevertheless occur in a complex social formation�察�whereas the more 
concrete category may have been fully evolved in a more primitive social 
formation。  
 
Labor seems to be a very simple category。  The notion of labor in this 
universal form ��as labor in general�� is also extreme
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