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formation。  
 
Labor seems to be a very simple category。  The notion of labor in this 
universal form ��as labor in general�� is also extremely old。  
Nevertheless�察 �labor; in this simplicity is economically considered just 
as modern a category as the relations which give rise to this simple 
abstraction。  The Monetary System�察�for example�察�still regards wealth 
quite objectively as a thing existing independently in the shape of 
money。  Compared with this standpoint�察�it was a substantial advance when 
the manufacturing or Mercantile system transferred the source of wealth 
from the object to the subjective activity  mercantile or industrial 
labor  but it still considered that only this circumscribed activity 
itself produced money。  In contrast to this system�察�the Physiocrats 
assume that a specific for of labor  agriculture  creates wealth�察�
and they see the object no longer in the guise of money�察�but as a 
product in general�察�as the universal result of labor。  In accordance 
with the still circumscribed activity�察�the product remains a naturally 
developed product�察�an agricultural product�察�a product of the land _par 
excellence_。  
 
It was an immense advance when Adam Smith rejected all restrictions with 
regard to the activity that produces wealth  for him�察�it was labor as 
such�察�neither manufacturing�察�nor commercial�察�nor agricultural labor�察�but 
all of them。  The abstract universality which creates wealth implies 
also the universality of the objects defined as wealth�此�they are 
products as such�察�or once more labor as such�察�but in this case past�察�
materialized labor。  How difficult and immense a transition that was is 
demonstrated by the fact that Adam Smith himself occassionally relapses 
once more into the Physiocratic system。  It might seem that in this way 
merely an abstract expression was found for the simplest and most 
ancient relation in which human beings act as producers  irrespective 
of the type of society they live in。  This is true in one respect�察�but 
not in another。  
 
The fact that the specific kind of labor is irrelevant presupposes a 
highly´developed complex of actually existing kinds of labor  none of 
which is any more the all´important one。  The most general abstractions 
arise on the whole only when concrete development is most profuse�察�so 
that a specific quality is seen to be common to many phenomena�察�or 
common to all。  Then it is no longer perceived solely in a particular 
form。  This abstraction of labor is�察�on the other hand�察�by no means 
simply the conceptual resultant of a variety of existing concrete types 
of labor。  The fact that the particular kind of labor employed is 
immaterial is appropriate to a form of society in which individuals 
easily pass from one type of labor to another�察�the particular type of 
labor being accidental to them and therefore irrelevant。  Labor�察�not 
only as a category but in reality�察�has become a means to create wealth 
in general�察�and has ceased to be tied as an attribute to a particular 
individual。  This state of affairs is most pronounced in the United 
States�察�the most modern form of bourgeois society。  The abstract 
category ;labor;�察 �labor as such;�察�labor _sans phrase_�察�the point of 
departure in modern economics�察�thus becomes a practical fact only there。  
The simplest abstraction�察�which plays a decisive role in modern 
political economy�察�an abstraction which expresses an ancient relation 
existing in all social formations�察�nevertheless appears to be actually 
true in this abstract form only as a category of the most modern 
society。  It might be said that phenomena which are historical products 
in the United States  e。g。�察�the irrelevance of the particular type of 
labor  appear to be among the Russians ��for instance�� naturally 
developed predispositions。  But in the first place�察�there is an enormous 
difference between barbarians having a predisposition which makes it 
possible to employ them in various tasks�察�and civilized people who apply 
themselves to various tasks。  As regards the Russians�察�moreover�察�their 
indifference to the particular kind of labor performed is in practice 
matched by their traditional habit of clinging fast to very definite 
kind of labor from which they are extricated only by external 
influences。  
 
The examples of labor strikingly demonstrates how even the most abstract 
categories ��despite their validity in all epochs��  precisely because 
they are abstractions  are equally a product of historical conditions 
even in the specific form of abstractions�察�and they retain their full 
validity only for and within the framework of these conditions。  
 
Bourgeois society is the most advanced and complex historical 
organization of production。  The categories which express its relations�察�
and an understanding of its structure�察�therefore�察�provide and an insight 
into the structure and the relations of production of all formerly 
existing social formations the ruins and component elements of which 
were used in the creation of bourgeois society。  Some of these 
assimilated remains are still carried on within bourgeois society�察�
others�察�however�察�which previously existed only in rudimentary form�察�have 
been further developed and have attained their full significance�察�etc。  
The anatomy of man is a key to the anatomy of the ape。  On the other 
hand�察�rudiments of more advanced forms in the lower species of animals 
can only be understood when the more advanced forms are already known。  
Bourgeois economy thus provides a key to the economy of antiquity�察�etc。�察�
but it is quite impossible ��to gain this insight�А�in the manner of those 
economists who obliterate all historical differences and who see in all 
social phenomenon only bourgeois phenomenon。  If one only knows rent�察�it 
is possible to understand tribute�察�etc。�察�but they do not have to be 
treated as identical。  
 
Since bourgeois society is�察�moreover�察�only a contradictory form of 
development�察�it contains relations of earlier societies often merely in 
very stunted form�察�or even in the form of travesties  e。g。�察�communal 
ownership。  Thus�察�although it is true that the categories of bourgeois 
economy are valid for all other social formations�察�this has to be taken 
_cum grano salis_�察�for they may contain them in an advanced�察�stunted�察�
caricatured�察�etc。�察�form  that is�察�always with substantial differences。  
What is called historical evolution depends�察�in general�察�on the fact 
that the latest form regards earlier ones as stages in the development 
of itself�察�and conceives them always in a one´sided manner  since only 
rarely�察�and under quite special conditions�察�is a society able to adopt a 
critical attitude towards itself。  In this context�察�we are not�察�of 
course�察�discussing historical periods which themselves believe that they 
are periods of decline。  The Christian religion was able to contribute 
to an objective understanding of earlier mythologies only when its 
self´criticism was�察�to a certain extent�察�prepared�察�as it were 
potentially。  Similarly�察�only when the self´criticism of bourgeois 
society had begun�察�was bourgeois political economy able to understand 
the feudal�察�ancient�察�and oriental economies。  In so far as bourgeois 
political economy did not simply identify itself with the past in a 
mythological manner�察�its criticism of earlier economies  especially of 
the feudal system against which it still had to wage a direct struggle 
 resembled the criticism that Christianity directed against 
heathenism�察�or which Protestantism directed against Catholicism。  
 
Just as�察�in general�察�when examining any historical period or social 
science�察�so also in the case of the development of economic categories 
is it always necessary to remember that the subject ��in this context�察�
contemporary bourgeois society�� is presupposed both in reality and in 
the mind�察�and that therefore categories express forms of existence and 
conditions of existence ��and sometimes merely separate aspects�� of this 
particular society�察�the subject�察�thus the category�察�_even from the 
scientific standpoint_�察�by no means begins at the moment when it is 
discussed _as such_。  This has to be remembered�察�because it provides 
important criteria for the arrangement of the material。  For example�察�
nothing seems more natural than to begin with rent  i。e。�察�landed 
property�察�since it is associated with the earth�察�the source of all 
production and all life  and agriculture�察�the first form of production 
in all societies that have attained a measure of stability。  But nothing 
would be more erroneous。  There is�察�in every social formation�察�a branch 
of production which determines the position and importance of all 
others�察�and the relations obtaining in this branch accordingly determine 
the relations of all other branches�察�as well。  It is as though light of 
a particular hue were cast upon everything�察�tinging all other colors and 
modifying their special features�察�or as if a special ether determined 
the specific gravity of everything found in it。  Let us take�察�as an 
example�察�pastoral tribes。  ��Tribes living exclusively on hunting or 
fishing are beyond the boundary line from which real development 
begins。�� A certain types of agricultural activity occurs among them�察�and 
this determines land ownership。  It is communal ownership and retains 
this form in a larger or smaller measure�察�according to the degree to 
which these people maintain their traditions  e。g。�察�communal ownership 
among the Slavs。  Among settled agricultural people  settled already 
to a large extent  where agriculture predominated�察�as in societies of 
antiquity and the feudal period�察�even manufacture ��its structure and the 
forms of property corresponding thereto�� have�察�in some measure�察�
specifically agrarian features。  Manufacture is either completely 
dependent on agriculture�察�as in the earlier Roman period�察�or as in the 
Middle Ages�察�it copies in the town and in its conditions the 
organization of the countryside。  Even in the Middle Ages�察�capital  
unless it was solely money capital  consisted of the traditional 
tools�察�etc。�察�and retained a specifically agrarian character。  The 
reverse takes place in bourgeois so
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