the age of invention-第14部分

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the　thickness　absolutely　uniform；　to　sew　the　uppers；　to　insert　eyelets；　to　cut　out　heel　tops；　and　many　more。　In　fact；　division　of　labor　has　been　carried　farther　in　the　making　of　shoes　than　in　most　industries；　for　there　are　said　to　be　about　three　hundred　separate　operations　in　making　a　pair　of　shoes。

From　small　beginnings　great　industries　have　grown。　It　is　a　far　cry　from　the　slow；　clumsy　machine　of　Elias　Howe；　less　than　three…quarters　of　a　century　ago；　to　the　great　factories　of　today；　filled　with　special　models；　run　at　terrific　speed　by　electric　current；　and　performing　tasks　which　would　seem　to　require　more　than　human　intelligence　and　skill。



CHAPTER　V。　THE　AGRICULTURAL　REVOLUTION

The　Census　of　1920　shows　that　hardly　thirty　per　cent　of　the　people　are　today　engaged　in　agriculture；　the　basic　industry　of　the　United　States；　as　compared　with　perhaps　ninety　per　cent　when　the　nation　began。　Yet　American　farmers；　though　constantly　diminishing　in　proportion　to　the　whole　population；　have　always　been；　and　still　are；　able　to　feed　themselves　and　all　their　fellow　Americans　and　a　large　part　of　the　outside　world　as　well。　They　bring　forth　also　not　merely　foodstuffs；　but　vast　quantities　of　raw　material　for　manufacture；　such　as　cotton；　wool；　and　hides。　This　immense　productivity　is　due　to　the　use　of　farm　machinery　on　a　scale　seen　nowhere　else　in　the　world。　There　is　still；　and　always　will　be；　a　good　deal　of　hard　labor　on　the　farm。　But　invention　has　reduced　the　labor　and　has　made　possible　the　carrying　on　of　this　vast　industry　by　a　relatively　small　number　of　hands。

The　farmers　of　Washington's　day　had　no　better　tools　than　had　the　farmers　of　Julius　Caesar's　day；　in　fact；　the　Roman　ploughs　were　probably　superior　to　those　in　general　use　in　America　eighteen　centuries　later。　〃The　machinery　of　production；〃　says　Henry　Adams；　〃showed　no　radical　difference　from　that　familiar　in　ages　long　past。　The　Saxon　farmer　of　the　eighth　century　enjoyed　most　of　the　comforts　known　to　Saxon　farmers　of　the　eighteenth。〃*　One　type　of　plough　in　the　United　States　was　little　more　than　a　crooked　stick　with　an　iron　point　attached；　sometimes　with　rawhide；　which　simply　scratched　the　ground。　Ploughs　of　this　sort　were　in　use　in　Illinois　as　late　as　1812。　There　were　a　few　ploughs　designed　to　turn　a　furrow；　often　simply　heavy　chunks　of　tough　wood；　rudely　hewn　into　shape；　with　a　wrought…iron　point　clumsily　attached。　The　moldboard　was　rough　and　the　curves　of　no　two　were　alike。　Country　blacksmiths　made　ploughs　only　on　order　and　few　had　patterns。　Such　ploughs　could　turn　a　furrow　in　soft　ground　if　the　oxen　were　strong　enoughbut　the　friction　was　so　great　that　three　men　and　four　or　six　oxen　were　required　to　turn　a　furrow　where　the　sod　was　tough。

*　〃History　of　the　United　States〃；　vol。　I；　p。　16。


Thomas　Jefferson　had　worked　out　very　elaborately　the　proper　curves　of　the　moldboard；　and　several　models　had　been　constructed　for　him。　He　was；　however；　interested　in　too　many　things　ever　to　follow　any　one　to　the　end；　and　his　work　seems　to　have　had　little　publicity。　The　first　real　inventor　of　a　practicable　plough　was　Charles　Newbold；　of　Burlington　County；　New　Jersey；　to　whom　a　patent　for　a　cast…iron　plough　was　issued　in　June；　1797。　But　the　farmers　would　have　none　of　it。　They　said　it　〃poisoned　the　soil〃　and　fostered　the　growth　of　weeds。　One　David　Peacock　received　a　patent　in　1807；　and　two　others　later。　Newbold　sued　Peacock　for　infringement　and　recovered　damages。　Pieces　of　Newbold's　original　plough　are　in　the　museum　of　the　New　York　Agricultural　Society　at　Albany。

Another　inventor　of　ploughs　was　Jethro　Wood；　a　blacksmith　of　Scipio；　New　York；　who　received　two　patents；　one　in　1814　and　the　other　in　1819。　His　plough　was　of　cast　iron；　but　in　three　parts；　so　that　a　broken　part　might　be　renewed　without　purchasing　an　entire　plough。　This　principle　of　standardization　marked　a　great　advance。　The　farmers　by　this　time　were　forgetting　their　former　prejudices；　and　many　ploughs　were　sold。　Though　Wood's　original　patent　was　extended；　infringements　were　frequent；　and　he　is　said　to　have　spent　his　entire　property　in　prosecuting　them。

In　clay　soils　these　ploughs　did　not　work　well；　as　the　more　tenacious　soil　stuck　to　the　iron　moldboard　instead　of　curling　gracefully　away。　In　1833；　John　Lane；　a　Chicago　blacksmith；　faced　a　wooden　moldboard　with　an　old　steel　saw。　It　worked　like　magic；　and　other　blacksmiths　followed　suit　to　such　an　extent　that　the　demand　for　old　saws　became　brisk。　Then　came　John　Deere；　a　native　of　Vermont；　who　settled　first　in　Grand　Detour；　and　then　in　Moline；　Illinois。　Deere　made　wooden　ploughs　faced　with　steel；　like　other　blacksmiths；　but　was　not　satisfied　with　them　and　studied　and　experimented　to　find　the　best　curves　and　angles　for　a　plough　to　be　used　in　the　soils　around　him。　His　ploughs　were　much　in　demand；　and　his　need　for　steel　led　him　to　have　larger　and　larger　quantities　produced　for　him；　and　the　establishment　which　still　bears　his　name　grew　to　large　proportions。

Another　skilled　blacksmith；　William　Parlin；　at　Canton；　Illinois；　began　making　ploughs　about　1842；　which　he　loaded　upon　a　wagon　and　peddled　through　the　country。　Later　his　establishment　grew　large。　Another　John　Lane；　a　son　of　the　first；　patented　in　1868　a　〃soft…center〃　steel　plough。　The　hard　but　brittle　surface　was　backed　by　softer　and　more　tenacious　metal；　to　reduce　the　breakage。　The　same　year　James　Oliver；　a　Scotch　immigrant　who　had　settled　at　South　Bend；　Indiana；　received　a　patent　for　the　〃chilled　plough。〃　By　an　ingenious　method　the　wearing　surfaces　of　the　casting　were　cooled　more　quickly　than　the　back。　The　surfaces　which　came　in　contact　with　the　soil　had　a　hard；　glassy　surface；　while　the　body　of　the　plough　was　of　tough　iron。　From　small　beginnings　Oliver's　establishment　grew　great；　and　the　Oliver　Chilled　Plow　Works　at　South　Bend　is　today　one　of　the　largest　and　most　favorably　known　privately　owned　industries　in　the　United　States。

From　the　single　plough　it　was　only　a　step　to　two　or　more　ploughs　fastened　together；　doing　more　work　with　approximately　the　same　man　power。　The　sulky　plough；　on　which　the　ploughman　rode；　made　his　work　easier；　and　gave　him　great　control。　Such　ploughs　were　certainly　in　use　as　early　as　1844；　perhaps　earlier。　The　next　step　forward　was　to　substitute　for　horses　a　traction　engine。　Today　one　may　see　on　thousands　of　farms　a　tractor　pulling　six；　eight；　ten；　or　more　ploughs；　doing　the　work　better　than　it　could　be　done　by　an　individual　ploughman。　On　the　〃Bonanza〃　farms　of　the　West　a　fifty　horsepower　engine　draws　sixteen　ploughs；　followed　by　harrows　and　a　grain　drill；　and　performs　the　three　operations　of　ploughing；　harrowing；　and　planting　at　the　same　time　and　covers　fifty　acres　or　more　in　a　day。

The　basic　ideas　in　drills　for　small　grains　were　successfully　developed　in　Great　Britain；　and　many　British　drills　were　sold　in　the　United　States　before　one　was　manufactured　here。　American　manufacture　of　these　drills　began　about　1840。　Planters　for　corn　came　somewhat　later。　Machines　to　plant　wheat　successfully　were　unsuited　to　corn；　which　must　be　planted　less　profusely　than　wheat。

The　American　pioneers　had　only　a　sickle　or　a　scythe　with　which　to　cut　their　grain。　The　addition　to　the　scythe　of　wooden　fingers；　against　which　the　grain　might　lie　until　the　end　of　the　swing；　was　a　natural　step；　and　seems　to　have　been　taken　quite　independently　in　several　places；　perhaps　as　early　as　1803。　Grain　cradles　are　still　used　in　hilly　regions　and　in　those　parts　of　the　country　where　little　grain　is　grown。

The　first　attempts　to　build　a　machine　to　cut　grain　were　made　in　England　and　Scotland；　several　of　them　in　the　eighteenth　century；　and　in　1822　Henry　Ogle；　a　schoolmaster　in　Rennington；　made　a　mechanical　reaper；　but　the　opposition　of　the　laborers　of　the　vicinity；　who　feared　loss　of　employment；　prevented　further　development。　In　1826；　Patrick　Bell；　a　young　Scotch　student；　afterward　a　Presbyterian　minister；　who　had　been　moved　by　the　fatigue　of　the　harvesters　upon　his　father's　farm　in　Argyllshire；　made　an　attempt　to　lighten　their　labor。　His　reaper　was　pushed　by　horses；　a　reel　brought　the　grain　against　blades　which　opened　and　closed　like　scissors；　and　a　traveling　canvas　apron　deposited　the　grain　at　one　side。　The　inventor　received　a　prize　from　the　Highland　and　Agricultural　Society　of　Edinburgh；　and　pictures　and　full　descriptions　of　his　invention　were　published。　Several　models　of　this　reaper　were　built　in　Great　Britain；　and　it　is　said　that　four　came　to　the　United　States；　however　this　may　be；　Bell's　machine　was　never　generally　adopted。

Soon　afterward　three　men　patented　reapers　in　the　United　States：　William　Manning；　Plainfield；　New　Jersey；　1831；　Obed　Hussey；　Cincinnati；　Ohio；　1833；　and　Cyrus　Hall　McCormick；　Staunton；　Virginia；　1834。　Just　how　much　they　owed　to　Patrick　Bell　cannot　be　known；　but　it　is　probable　that　all　had　heard　of　his　design　if　they　had　not　seen　his　drawings　or　the　machine　itself。　The　first　of　these　inventors；　Manning　of　New　Jersey；　drops　out　of　the　story；　for　it　is　not　known　whether　he　ever　made　a　machine　other　than　his　model。　More　persistent　was　Obed　Hussey　of　Cincinnati；　who　soon　moved　to　Baltimore　to　fight　out　the　issue　with　McCormick。　Hussey　was　an　excellent　mechanic。　He　patented　several　improvements　to　his　machine　and　received　high　praise　for　the　efficiency　of　the　work。　But　he　was　soon　outstripped　in　the　race　because　he　was　weak　in　the　essential　qualities　which　made　McCormick　the　greatest　figure　in　the　world　of　agricultural　machinery。　McCormick　was　more　than　a　mechanic；　he　was　a　man　of　vision；　and　he　had　the　enthusiasm　of　a　crusader　and　superb　genius　for　business　organization　and　advertisement。　His　story　has　been　told　in　another　volume　of　this　series。*

*　〃The　Age　of　Big　Business〃；　by　Burton　J。　Hendrick。


Though　McCormick　offered　reapers　for　sale　in　1834；　he　seems　to　have　sold　none　in　that　year；　nor　any　for　six　years　afterwards。　He　sold　two　in　1840；　seven　in　1842；　fifty　in　1844。　The　machine　was　not　really　adapted　to　the　hills　of　the　Valley　of　Virginia；　and　farmers　hesitated　to　buy　a　contrivance　which　needed　the　attention　of　a　skilled　mechanic。　McCormick　made　a　trip　through　the　Middle　West。　In　the　rolling　prairies；　mile　after　mile　of　rich　soil　without　a　tree　or　a　stone；　he　saw　his　future　dominion。　Hussey　had　moved　East。　McCormick　di