the age of invention-第15部分

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rich　soil　without　a　tree　or　a　stone；　he　saw　his　future　dominion。　Hussey　had　moved　East。　McCormick　did　the　opposite；　he　moved　West；　to　Chicago；　in　1847。

Chicago　was　then　a　town　of　hardly　ten　thousand；　but　McCormick　foresaw　its　future；　built　a　factory　there；　and　manufactured　five　hundred　machines　for　the　harvest　of　1848。　From　this　time　he　went　on　from　triumph　to　triumph。　He　formulated　an　elaborate　business　system。　His　machines　were　to　be　sold　at　a　fixed　price；　payable　in　installments　if　desired；　with　a　guarantee　of　satisfaction。　He　set　up　a　system　of　agencies　to　give　instruction　or　to　supply　spare　parts。　Advertising；　chiefly　by　exhibitions　and　contests　at　fairs　and　other　public　gatherings；　was　another　item　of　his　programme。　All　would　have　failed；　of　course；　if　he　had　not　built　good　machines；　but　he　did　build　good　machines；　and　was　not　daunted　by　the　Government's　refusal　in　1848　to　renew　his　original　patent。　He　decided　to　make　profits　as　a　manufacturer　rather　than　accept　royalties　as　an　inventor。

McCormick　had　many　competitors；　and　some　of　them　were　in　the　field　with　improved　devices　ahead　of　him；　but　he　always　held　his　own；　either　by　buying　up　the　patent　for　a　real　improvement；　or　else　by　requiring　his　staff　to　invent　something　to　do　the　same　work。　Numerous　new　devices　to　improve　the　harvester　were　patented；　but　the　most　important　was　an　automatic　attachment　to　bind　the　sheaves　with　wire。　This　was　patented　in　1872；　and　McCormick　soon　made　it　his　own。　The　harvester　seemed　complete。　One　man　drove　the　team；　and　the　machine　cut　the　grain；　bound　it　in　sheaves；　and　deposited　them　upon　the　ground。

Presently；　however；　complaints　were　heard　of　the　wire　tie。　When　the　wheat　was　threshed；　bits　of　wire　got　into　the　straw；　and　were　swallowed　by　the　cattle；　or　else　the　bits　of　metal　got　among　the　wheat　itself　and　gave　out　sparks　in　grinding；　setting　some　mills　on　fire。　Two　inventors；　almost　simultaneously；　produced　the　remedy。　Marquis　L。　Gorham；　working　for　McCormick；　and　John　F。　Appleby；　whose　invention　was　purchased　by　William　Deering；　one　of　McCormick's　chief　competitors；　invented　binders　which　used　twine。　By　1880　the　self…binding　harvester　was　complete。　No　distinctive　improvement　has　been　made　since；　except　to　add　strength　and　simplification。　The　machine　now　needed　the　services　of　only　two　men；　one　to　drive　and　the　other　to　shock　the　bundles；　and　could　reap　twenty　acres　or　more　a　day；　tie　the　grain　into　bundles　of　uniform　size；　and　dump　them　in　piles　of　five　ready　to　be　shocked。

Grain　must　be　separated　from　the　straw　and　chaff。　The　Biblical　threshing　floor；　on　which　oxen　or　horses　trampled　out　the　grain；　was　still　common　in　Washington's　time；　though　it　had　been　largely　succeeded　by　the　flail。　In　Great　Britain　several　threshing　machines　were　devised　in　the　eighteenth　century；　but　none　was　particularly　successful。　They　were　stationary；　and　it　was　necessary　to　bring　the　sheaves　to　them。　The　seventh　patent　issued　by　the　United　States；　to　Samuel　Mulliken　of　Philadelphia；　was　for　a　threshing　machine。　The　portable　horse…power　treadmill；　invented　in　1830　by　Hiram　A。　and　John　A。　Pitts　of　Winthrop；　Maine；　was　presently　coupled　with　a　thresher；　or　〃separator；〃　and　this　outfit；　with　its　men　and　horses；　moving　from　farm　to　farm；　soon　became　an　autumn　feature　of　every　neighborhood。　The　treadmill　was　later　on　succeededby　the　traction　engine；　and　the　apparatus　now　in　common　use　is　an　engine　which　draws　the　greatly　improved　threshing　machine　from　farm　to　farm；　and　when　the　destination　is　reached；　furnishes　the　power　to　drive　the　thresher。　Many　of　these　engines　are　adapted　to　the　use　of　straw　as　fuel。

Another　development　was　the　combination　harvester　and　thresher　used　on　the　larger　farms　of　the　West。　This　machine　does　not　cut　the　wheat　close　to　the　ground；　but　the　cutter…bar；　over　twenty…five　feet　in　length；　takes　off　the　heads。　The　wheat　is　separated　from　the　chaff　and　automatically　weighed　into　sacks；　which　are　dumped　as　fast　as　two　expert　sewers　can　work。　The　motive　power　is　a　traction　engine　or　else　twenty　to　thirty　horses；　and　seventy…five　acres　a　day　can　be　reaped　and　threshed。　Often　another　tractor　pulling　a　dozen　wagons　follows　and　the　sacks　are　picked　up　and　hauled　to　the　granary　or　elevator。

Haying　was　once　the　hardest　work　on　the　farm；　and　in　no　crop　has　machinery　been　more　efficient。　The　basic　idea　in　the　reaper；　the　cutter…bar；　is　the　whole　of　the　mower；　and　the　machine　developed　with　the　reaper。　Previously　Jeremiah　Bailey；　of　Chester　County；　Pennsylvania；　had　patented　in　1822　a　machine　drawn　by　horses　carrying　a　revolving　wheel　with　six　scythes；　which　was　widely　used。　The　inventions　of　Manning；　Hussey；　and　McCormick　made　the　mower　practicable。　Hazard　Knowles；　an　employee　of　the　Patent　Office；　invented　the　hinged　cutter…bar；　which　could　be　lifted　over　an　obstruction；　but　never　patented　the　invention。　William　F。　Ketchum　of　Buffalo；　New　York；　in　1844；　patented　the　first　machine　intended　to　cut　hay　only；　and　dozens　of　others　followed。　The　modern　mowing　machine　was　practically　developed　in　the　patent　of　Lewis　Miller　of　Canton；　Ohio；　in　1858。　Several　times　as　many　mowers　as　harvesters　are　sold；　and　for　that　matter；　reapers　without　binding　attachments　are　still　manufactured。

Hayrakes　and　tedders　seem　to　have　developed　almost　of　themselves。　Diligent　research　has　failed　to　discover　any　reliable　information　on　the　invention　of　the　hayrake；　though　a　horserake　was　patented　as　early　as　1818。　Joab　Center　of　Hudson；　New　York；　patented　a　machine　for　turning　and　spreading　hay　in　1834。　Mechanical　hayloaders　have　greatly　reduced　the　amount　of　human　labor。　The　hay…press　makes　storage　and　transportation　easier　and　cheaper。

There　are　binders　which　cut　and　bind　corn。　An　addition　shocks　the　corn　and　deposits　it　upon　the　ground。　The　shredder　and　husker　removes　the　ears；　husks　them；　and　shreds　shucks；　stalks；　and　fodder。　Power　shellers　separate　grain　and　cobs　more　than　a　hundred　times　as　rapidly　as　a　pair　of　human　hands　could　do。　One　student　of　agriculture　has　estimated　that　it　would　require　the　whole　agricultural　population　of　the　United　States　one　hundred　days　to　shell　the　average　corn　crop　by　hand；　but　this　is　an　exaggeration。

The　list　of　labor…saving　machinery　in　agriculture　is　by　no　means　exhausted。　There　are　clover　hullers；　bean　and　pea　threshers；　ensilage　cutters；　manure　spreaders；　and　dozens　of　others。　On　the　dairy　farm　the　cream　separator　both　increases　the　quantity　and　improves　the　quality　of　the　butter　and　saves　time。　Power　also　drives　the　churns。　On　many　farms　cows　are　milked　and　sheep　are　sheared　by　machines　and　eggs　are　hatched　without　hens。

There　are；　of　course；　thousands　of　farms　in　the　country　where　machinery　cannot　be　used　to　advantage　and　where　the　work　is　still　done　entirely　or　in　part　in　the　old　ways。


Historians　once　were　fond　of　marking　off　the　story　of　the　earth　and　of　men　upon　the　earth　into　distinct　periods　fixed　by　definite　dates。　One　who　attempts　to　look　beneath　the　surface　cannot　accept　this　easy　method　of　treatment。　Beneath　the　surface　new　tendencies　develop　long　before　they　demand　recognition；　an　institution　may　be　decaying　long　before　its　weakness　is　apparent。　The　American　Revolution　began　not　with　the　Stamp　Act　but　at　least　a　century　earlier；　as　soon　as　the　settlers　realized　that　there　were　three　thousand　miles　of　sea　between　England　and　the　rude　country　in　which　they　found　themselves；　the　Civil　War　began；　if　not　in　early　Virginia；　with　the　〃Dutch　Man　of　Warre　that　sold　us　twenty　Negars；〃　at　least　with　Eli　Whitney　and　his　cotton　gin。

Nevertheless；　certain　dates　or　short　periods　seem　to　be　flowering　times。　Apparently　all　at　once　a　flood　of　invention；　a　change　of　methods；　a　difference　in　organization；　or　a　new　psychology　manifests　itself。　And　the　decade　of　the　Civil　War　does　serve　as　a　landmark　to　mark　the　passing　of　one　period　in　American　life　and　the　beginning　of　another；　especially　in　agriculture；　and　as　agriculture　is　the　basic　industry　of　the　country　it　follows　that　with　its　mutations　the　whole　superstructure　is　also　changed。

The　United　States　which　fought　the　Civil　War　was　vastly　different　from　the　United　States　which　fronted　the　world　at　the　close　of　the　Revolution。　The　scant　four　million　people　of　1790　had　grown　to　thirty…one　and　a　half　million。　This　growth　had　come　chiefly　by　natural　increase；　but　also　by　immigration；　conquest；　and　annexation。　Settlement　had　reached　the　Pacific　Ocean；　though　there　were　great　stretches　of　almost　uninhabited　territory　between　the　settlements　on　the　Pacific　and　those　just　beyond　the　Mississippi。

The　cotton　gin　had　turned　the　whole　South　toward　the　cultivation　of　cotton；　though　some　States　were　better　fitted　for　mixed　farming；　and　their　devotion　to　cotton　meant　loss　in　the　end　as　subsequent　events　have　proved。　The　South　was　not　manufacturing　any　considerable　proportion　of　the　cotton　it　grew；　but　the　textile　industry　was　flourishing　in　New　England。　A　whole　series　of　machines　similar　to　those　used　in　Great　Britain；　but　not　identical；　had　been　invented　in　America。　American　mills　paid　higher　wages　than　British　and　in　quantity　production　were　far　ahead　of　。the　British　mills；　in　proportion　to　hands　employed；　which　meant　being　ahead　of　the　rest　of　the　world。

Wages　in　America；　measured　by　the　world　standard；　were　high；　though　as　expressed　in　money；　they　seem　low　now。　They　were　conditioned　by　the　supply　of　free　land；　or　land　that　was　practically　free。　The　wages　paid　were　necessarily　high　enough　to　attract　laborers　from　the　soil　which　they　might　easily　own　if　they　chose。　There　was　no　fixed　laboring　class。　The　boy　or　girl　in　a　textile　mill　often　worked　only　a　few　years　to　save　money；　buy　a　farm；　or　to　enter　some　business　or　profession。

The　steamboat　now；　wherever　there　was　navigable　water；　and　the　railroad；　for　a　large　part　of　the　way；　offered　transportation　to　the　boundless　West。　Steamboats　traversed　all　the　larger　rivers　and　the　lakes。　The　railroad　was　growing　rapidly。　Its　lines　had　extended　to　more　than　thirty　thousand　miles。　Construction　went　on　during　the　war；　and　the　transcontinental　railway　was　in　sight。　The　locomotive　had　approached　standardization；　and　the　American　railway　car　was　in　form　similar　to　that　of　the　present　day；　though　not　so　large；　so　comfortable；　or　so　str