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proposed roads to freedom(宥吏徭喇岻揃)-及3何蛍

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                                      HISTORICAL 



                                     CHAPTER I 



                      MARX AND SOCIALIST DOCTRINE 

       SOCIALISM�察�like  everything   else   that   is vital�察 �is   rather  a  tendency 

than a strictly definable body of doctrine。 A definition of Socialism is sure 

either to include some views which many would regard as not Socialistic�察�

or to exclude others which claim to be included。 But I think we shall come 

nearest   to   the   essence   of   Socialism   by   defining   it   as   the   advocacy   of 

communal        ownership     of  land   and   capital。  Communal       ownership      may 

mean   ownership   by   a   democratic   State�察  �but   cannot   be   held   to   include 

ownership   by   any   State   which   is   not   democratic。   Communal   ownership 

may also be understood�察�as Anarchist Communism understands it�察�in the 

sense   of   ownership   by   the   free   association   of   the   men   and   women   in   a 

community       without    those   compulsory      powers     which    are  necessary     to 

constitute a State。 Some Socialists expect communal ownership to arrive 

suddenly and completely by a catastrophic revolution�察�while others expect 

it   to   come   gradually�察  �first   in   one   industry�察  �then   in   another。   Some   insist 

upon the necessity of completeness in the acquisition of land and capital 

by  the   public�察  �while   others   would   be   content   to   see   lingering   islands   of 

private   ownership�察     �provided   they   were   not    too  extensive    or  powerful。 

What all forms have in common is democracy and the abolition�察�virtual or 

complete�察     �of  the  present    capitalistic   system。    The   distinction    between 

Socialists�察   �Anarchists     and   Syndicalists    turns   largely  upon    the  kind   of 

democracy       which     they   desire。   Orthodox     Socialists    are   content    with 

parliamentary   democracy   in   the   sphere   of   government�察  �holding   that   the 

evils apparent in this form of constitution at present would disappear with 

the disappearance of capitalism。 Anarchists and Syndicalists�察�on the other 

hand�察�object to the whole parliamentary machinery�察�and aim at a different 

method of regulating the political affairs of the community。 But all alike 

are   democratic   in   the   sense   that   they   aim   at   abolishing   every   kind   of 



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privilege and every kind of artificial inequality�此�all alike are champions of 

the wage´ earner in existing society。 All three also have much in common 

in their economic doctrine。 All three regard capital and the wages system 

as   a   means   of   exploiting   the   laborer   in   the   interests   of   the   possessing 

classes�察�and hold that communal ownership�察�in one form or another�察�is the 

only     means     of   bringing     freedom      to  the   producers。      But    within    the 

framework of this common doctrine there are many divergences�察�and even 

among      those    who    are   strictly  to  be   called   Socialists�察   �there   is  a  very 

considerable diversity of schools。 

     Socialism as a power in Europe may be said to begin with Marx。 It is 

true that before his time there were Socialist theories�察�both in England and 

in   France。   It   is   also   true   that   in   France�察  �during   the   revolution   of   1848�察�

Socialism for a brief period acquired considerable influence in the State。 

But    the   Socialists    who    preceded      Marx    tended     to  indulge    in  Utopian 

dreams and failed to found any strong or stable political party。 To Marx�察�in 

collaboration with Engels�察�are due both the formulation of a coherent body 

of Socialist doctrine�察�sufficiently true or plausible to dominate the minds 

of vast numbers of men�察�and the formation of the International   Socialist 

movement�察       �which     has   continued      to  grow     in   all  European      countries 

throughout the last fifty years。 

     In   order    to   understand     Marx's     doctrine�察   �it  is  necessary     to   know 

something   of   the   influences   which   formed   his   outlook。   He   was   born   in 

1818 at Treves in the Rhine Provinces�察�his father being a legal official�察�a 

Jew who had nominally accepted Christianity。 Marx studied jurisprudence�察�

philosophy�察�political economy and history at various German universities。 

In   philosophy   he   imbibed   the   doctrines   of   Hegel�察  �who   was   then   at   the 

height     of  his   fame�察   �and   something      of   these   doctrines     dominated      his 

thought throughout his life。 Like Hegel�察�he saw in history the development 

of   an   Idea。   He   conceived   the   changes   in   the   world   as   forming   a   logical 

development�察�in which one phase passes by revolution into another�察�which 

is   its   antithesisa   conception     which     gave   to   his   views   a   certain  hard 

abstractness�察     �and   a   belief   in  revolution     rather   than   evolution。     But   of 

Hegel's more definite doctrines Marx retained nothing after his youth。 He 

was   recognized   as   a   brilliant   student�察  �and   might   have   had   a   prosperous 



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career   as   a   professor   or   an   official�察  �but   his   interest   in   politics   and   his 

Radical      views    led  him   into    more    arduous     paths。   Already     in  1842     he 

became   editor   of   a   newspaper�察  �which   was   suppressed   by   the   Prussian 

Government         early   in   the  following      year   on   account     of   its  advanced 

opinions。   This   led   Marx   to   go   to   Paris�察  �where   he   became   known   as   a 

Socialist and acquired a knowledge of his French predecessors。��1�А�Here in 

the   year   1844   began   his   lifelong   friendship   with   Engels�察  �who   had   been 

hitherto in business in Manchester�察�where he had become acquainted with 

English Socialism and had in the main adopted its doctrines。��2�А�In   1845 

Marx was expelled from Paris and went with Engels to live in Brussels。 

There he formed a German Working Men's Association and edited a paper 

which      was   their   organ。    Through      his  activities   in   Brussels    he   became 

known   to   the   German   Communist   League   in   Paris�察  �who�察  �at   the   end   of 

1847�察  �invited   him   and   Engels   to   draw   up   for   them   a   manifesto�察  �which 

appeared in January�察�1848。 This is the famous ``Communist Manifesto��'' in 

which      for  the   first  time   Marx's     system    is  set  forth。   It  appeared     at  a 

fortunate moment。 In the following month�察�February�察�the revolution broke 

out in Paris�察�and in March it spread to Germany。 Fear of the revolution led 

the   Brussels   Government   to   expel   Marx   from   Belgium�察  �but   the   German 

revolution      made     it  possible   for   him   to   return   to  his   own    country。    In 

Germany he again edited a paper�察�which again led him into a conflict with 

the   authorities�察  �increasing   in   severity   as   the   reaction   gathered   force。   In 

June�察�1849�察�his paper was suppressed�察�and he was expelled from Prussia。 

He   returned   to   Paris�察  �but   was   expelled   from   there   also。  This   led   him   to 

settle   in   Englandat   that   time   an   asylum  for   friends   of   freedomand   in 

England�察�with only brief intervals for purposes of agitation�察�he continued 

to live until his death in 1883。 

       ��1�А   �Chief     among      these    were     Fourier     and     Saint´Simon�察      �who 

constructed        somewhat        fantastic      Socialistic     ideal     commonwealths。 

Proudhon�察�with whom Marx had some not wholly friendly relations�察�is to 

be   regarded   as   a   forerunner   of   the   Anarchists   rather   than   of   orthodox 

Socialism。 

     ��2�А�Marx mentions the English Socialists with praise in ``The Poverty 

of Philosophy'' ��1847��。 They�察�like him�察�tend to base their arguments upon a 



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Ricardian   theory   of   value�察  �but   they   have   not   his   scope   or   erudition   or 

scientific     breadth。    Among      them   may   be     mentioned      Thomas      Hodgskin 

��1787´1869���察       �originally    an    officer   in  the   Navy�察    �but   dismissed      for  a 

pamphlet   critical   of   the   methods   of   naval   discipline�察  �author   of   ``Labour 

Defended Against the Claims of Capital'' ��1825�� and other works�察�William 

Thompson         ��1785´1833���察       �author    of   ``Inquiry     into   the    Principles     of 

Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness'' ��1824���察�and 

``Labour       Rewarded''       ��1825���察    �and     Piercy    Ravenstone�察       �from     whom 

Hodgskin's ideas are largely derived。 Perhaps more important than any of 

these was Robert Owen。 

       The   bulk   of   his   time   was   occupied   in   the   composition   of   his   great 

book�察  �`Capital。''��3�А �His other important   work during   his later   years   was 

the formation and spread of the International Working Men's Association。 

From  1849   onward   the   greater   part   of   his   time   was   spent   in   the   British 

Museum�察       �accumulating�察      �with    German      patience�察    �the   materials    for   his 

terrific   indictment   of   capitalist   society�察  �but   he   retained   his   hold   on   the 

International Socialist movement。 In several countries he had sons´in´law 

as    lieutenants�察    �like  Napoleon's       brothers�察   �and    in  the   various     internal 

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