嗔秤戻幣�哉膵�云利匈嬉蝕湊蛸賜�塋床四衲���萩晦編報炎嘔囚^泡仟 ̄云利匈��
栽怩弌傍利 卦指云慕朕村 紗秘慕禰 厘議慕尺 厘議慕禰 TXT畠云和墮 〆辺茄欺厘議箝誓匂〇

proposed roads to freedom(宥吏徭喇岻揃)-及18何蛍

酔楯荷恬: 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈 梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何! 泌惚云慕短嗤堋響頼���誅卒亮茂�俊彭堋響��辛聞喘貧圭 "辺茄欺厘議箝誓匂" 孔嬬 才 "紗秘慕禰" 孔嬬��



Malthus'     doctrine    of  population�察    �and   second�察   �the  vaguer�察   �but   very 

prevalent�察�view that any surplus above the bare necessaries of life can only 

be produced if most men work long hours at monotonous or painful tasks�察�

leaving little leisure for a civilized   existence or rational enjoyment。 I   do 

not believe that either of these obstacles to optimism will survive a close 

scrutiny。    The   possibility   of  technical   improvement      in  the  methods     of 

production is�察  �I   believe�察 �so great   that�察  �at   any  rate   for   centuries   to   come�察�

there will be no inevitable barrier to progress in the general well´being by 

the   simultaneous   increase   of   commodities   and   diminution   of   hours   of 

labor。 

     This subject has been specially studied by Kropotkin�察�who�察�whatever 

may     be   thought    of  his   general   theories    of  politics�察  �is  remarkably 

instructive�察   �concrete    and   convincing     in   all  that  he   says   about   the 



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possibilities     of   agriculture。    Socialists     and   Anarchists      in  the   main    are 

products      of   industrial    life�察 �and   few    among      them    have    any    practical 

knowledge        on   the   subject    of   food    production。      But   Kropotkin       is  an 

exception。       His   two    books�察     �`The    Conquest      of   Bread''    and    ``Fields�察�

Factories and Workshops��'' are very full of detailed information�察�and�察�even 

making great   allowances   for   an   optimistic   bias�察  �I   do   not   think   it   can   be 

denied     that   they   demonstrate       possibilities    in  which     few    of  us   would 

otherwise have believed。 

     Malthus contended�察�in effect�察�that population always tends to increase 

up to the limit of subsistence�察�that the production of food becomes more 

expensive as its amount is increased�察�and that therefore�察�apart from short 

exceptional periods when new discoveries produce temporary alleviations�察�

the   bulk   of   mankind   must   always   be   at   the   lowest   level   consistent   with 

survival and reproduction。 As applied to the civilized races of the world�察�

this doctrine is becoming untrue through the rapid decline in the birth´rate�察�

but�察�apart from this decline�察�there are many other reasons why the doctrine 

cannot   be   accepted�察  �at   any   rate   as   regards   the   near   future。   The   century 

which      elapsed    after   Malthus     wrote�察   �saw    a  very   great   increase     in  the 

standard   of   comfort   throughout   the   wage´earning   classes�察  �and�察  �owing   to 

the enormous increase in the productivity of labor�察�a far greater rise in the 

standard   of   comfort   could   have   been   effected   if   a   more   just   system   of 

distribution had been introduced。 In former times�察�when one man's labor 

produced not very much more than was needed for one man's subsistence�察�

it   was   impossible   either   greatly   to   reduce   the   normal   hours   of   labor�察  �or 

greatly   to   increase   the   proportion   of   the   population   who   enjoyed   more 

than    the   bare    necessaries     of   life。  But   this   state   of  affairs    has   been 

overcome by modern methods of production。 At the present moment�察�not 

only   do   many   people   enjoy   a   comfortable   income   derived   from   rent   or 

interest�察�but about half the population of most of the civilized countries in 

the world is engaged�察�not in the production of commodities�察�but in fighting 

or in manufacturing munitions of war。 In a time of peace the whole of this 

half might be kept in idleness without making the other half poorer than 

they would have been if   the war had continued�察 �and if�察�instead of   being 

idle�察  �they   were   productively   employed�察  �the   whole   of   what   they   would 



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produce would be a divisible surplus over and above present wages。 The 

present productivity of labor in Great Britain would suffice to produce an 

income   of   about   1   pound   per   day   for   each   family�察  �even   without   any   of 

those     improvements         in   methods      which      are   obviously      immediately 

possible。 

     But�察  �it   will   be   said�察  �as   population   increases�察  �the   price   of   food   must 

ultimately increase also as the sources of supply in Canada�察�the Argentine�察�

Australia and elsewhere are more and more used up。 There must come a 

time�察�so pessimists will urge�察�when food becomes so dear that the ordinary 

wage´earner will have little surplus for expenditure upon other things。 It 

may be admitted that this would be true in some very distant future if the 

population were to continue to increase without limit。 If the whole surface 

of   the   world   were   as   densely  populated   as   London is   now�察  �it   would�察 �no 

doubt�察  �require   almost   the   whole   labor   of   the   population   to   produce   the 

necessary food from the few spaces remaining for agriculture。 But there is 

no    reason     to  suppose     that   the   population      will   continue     to  increase 

indefinitely�察  �and   in   any   case   the   prospect   is   so   remote   that   it   may   be 

ignored in all practical considerations。 

     Returning       from    these   dim    speculations      to  the   facts   set   forth   by 

Kropotkin�察�we find it proved in his writings that�察�by methods of intensive 

cultivation�察  �which   are   already   in   actual   operation�察  �the   amount   of   food 

produced on a given area can be increased far beyond anything that most 

uninformed   persons   suppose   possible。   Speaking   of   the   market´gardeners 

in   Great   Britain�察  �in   the   neighborhood   of   Paris�察  �and   in   other   places�察  �he 

says�此�

       They   have   created   a   totally   new   agriculture。   They   smile   when   we 

boast about the rotation system having permitted us to take from the field 

one crop every year�察�or four crops each three years�察�because their ambition 

is to have six and nine crops from the very same plot of land during the 

twelve months。 They do not understand our talk about good and bad soils�察�

because they make the soil themselves�察�and make it in such quantities as to 

be   compelled   yearly   to   sell   some   of   it�察  �otherwise   it   would   raise   up   the 

level of their gardens by half an inch every year。 They aim at cropping�察�not 

five or six tons of grass on the acre�察�as we do�察�but from 50 to 100 tons of 



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various vegetables on the same space�察�not 5 pound sworth of hay�察�but 100 

pounds      worth    of  vegetables�察   �of   the  plainest   description�察    �cabbage    and 

carrots。��38�А�

       ��38�А�Kropotkin�察 �`Fields�察�Factories and Workshops��'' p。 74。 

       As regards cattle�察�he mentions   that Mr。 Champion at Whitby  grows 

on   each    acre   the  food   of   two   or   three  head   of   cattle�察 �whereas    under 

ordinary   high   farming   it   takes   two   or   three   acres   to   keep   each   head   of 

cattle in Great Britain。 Even more astonishing are the achievements of the 

Culture     Maraicheres      round    Paris。  It  is  impossible    to  summarize       these 

achievements�察�but we may note the general conclusion�此�

       There are now practical Maraichers who venture to maintain that if 

all the food�察�animal and vegetable�察�necessary for the 3��500��000 inhabitants 

of the Departments of Seine and Seine´et´Oise had to be grown on their 

own territory ��3250 square miles���察�it could be grown without resorting to 

any other methods of culture than those already in usemethods already 

tested on a large scale and proved successful。��39�А�

       ��39�А�Ib。 p。 81。 

       It must be remembered that these two departments include the whole 

population of Paris。 

     Kropotkin   proceeds   to   point   out   methods   by   which   the   same   result 

could   be achieved   without   long hours of   labor。  Indeed�察�he   contends   that 

the great bulk of agricultural work could be carried on by people whose 

main occupations are sedentary�察�and with only such a number of hours as 

would serve to keep them in health and produce a pleasant diversification。 

He   protests   against   the   theory  of   exces´   sive   division   of   labor。  What   he 

wants is INTEGRATION�察 �`a society where each individual is a producer 

of   both   manual   and   intellectual   work�察  �where   each   able´   bodied   human 

being is a worker�察�and where each worker works both in the field and in 

the industrial workshop。''��40�А�

       ��40�А�Kropotkin�察 �`Field�察�Factories�察�and Workshops��'' p。 6。 

       These    views    as  to  production      have   no   essential   connection     with 

Kropotkin's      advocacy      of  Anarchism。      They    would    be   equally    possible 

under State Socialism�察�and under certain circumstances they might even be 

carried   out   in   a   capitalistic   regime。   They   are   important   for   our   present 



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purpose�察    �not   from    any    argument     which     they   afford   in  favor    of  one 

economic system as against another�察�but from the fact that they remove the 

veto upon our hopes which might otherwise result from a doubt as to the 

productive   capacity   of   labor。   I   have   dwelt   upon   agriculture   rather   than 

industry�察�since it is in regard to agriculture that the difficulties are chiefly 

supposed   to   aris
卦指朕村 貧匯匈 和匯匈 指欺競何 壘��2�� 家��3��
酔楯荷恬: 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈 梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何!
梁椣戻幣�� 梁心弌傍議揖扮窟燕得胎��傍竃徭失議心隈才凪万弌誌育断蛍�輌臆惨軼僑〃�燕慕得珊辛參資誼持蛍才将刮襲潜��範寔亟圻幹慕得 瓜寡追葎娼得辛參資誼寄楚署衛、持蛍才将刮襲潜填��